Abstract
Commonsense psychology and cognitive science both regularly assume the existence of representational states. I propose a naturalistic theory of representation sufficient to meet the pretheoretical constraints of a “folk theory of representation”, constraints including the capacities for accuracy and inaccuracy, selectivity of proper objects of representation, perspective, articulation, and “efficacy” or content-determined functionality. The proposed model states that a representing device is a device which changes state when information is received over multiple information channels originating at a single source. The changed state of a representing device is a representation. The unitary information source which would give rise to the information impinging on the representing device, and hence, give rise to the representation, is the content of the representation. The model meets the pretheoretic constraints, and also conforms to available neurobiological data for two invertebrate species.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, Thomas: 1985, ‘Cellular Studies of an Associative Mechanism for Classical Conditioning in Aplysia: Activity-dependent Presynaptic Facilitation’, in Allen I. Selverston, (ed.), Model Neural Networks and Behavior, Plenum Press, New York.
Adams, Douglas: 1985, Life, the Universe, and Everything, Pocket Books, New York.
Alkon, D. L.: 1973, ‘Intersensory Interactions in Hermissenda’, Journal of General Physiology 65, 385–397.
Alkon, D. L.: 1974, ‘Associative Training of Hermissenda’, Journal of General Physiology 64, 70–84.
Alkon, D. L.: 1975a, ‘Responses of Hair Cells to Statocyst Rotation’, Journal of General Physiology 66, 507–530.
Alkon, D. L.: 1975b, ‘Neural Correlates of Associative Training in Hermissenda’, Journal of General Physiology 65, 46–56.
Alkon, D. L.: 1976a, ‘Signal Transformation with Pairing of Sensory Stimuli’, Journal of General Physiology 67, 197–211.
Alkon, D. L.: 1976b, ‘Neural Modification by Paired Sensory Stimuli’, Journal of General Physiology 68, 341–358.
Alkon, D. L.: 1979, ‘Voltage-Dependent Calcium and Potassium Ion Conductances: A Contingency Mechanism for an Associative Learning Model’, Science 205, 810–816.
Alkon, D. L.: 1980, ‘Membrane Depolarization Accumulates During Acquisition of an Associative Behavioral Change’, Science 210, 1375–1376.
Alkon, D. L.: 1983, ‘Learning in a Marine Snail’, Scientific American 249, 70–84.
Alkon, D. L.: 1984, ‘Persistent Calcium-mediated Changes of Identified Membrane Currents as a Cause of Associative Learning’, in D. L. Alkon and J. Farley (eds.), Primary Neural Substrates of Learning and Behavioral Change, Cambridge University Press, pp. 291–324.
Alkon, D. L.: forthcoming, ‘Changes in Membrane Channels During Learning’, Society for Experimental Biology Symposia.
Alkon, D. L., T. Akaike, and J. Harrigan: 1978, ‘Interaction of Chemosensory, Visual, and Statocyst Pathways in Hermissenda crassicornis’, Journal of General Physiology 71, 177–194.
Alkon, D. L. and A. Bak: 1973, ‘Hair Cell Generator Potentials’, Journal of General Psychology 61, 619–637.
Alkon, D. L. and M. G. F. Fuortes: 1972, ‘Responses of Photoreceptors in Hermissenda’, Journal of General Physiology 60, 631–649.
Anderson, J. R.: 1978, ‘Arguments Concerning Representations for Mental Imagery’, Psychological Review 85, 249.
Bennett, J.: 1976, Linguistic Behaviour, Cambridge University Press.
Block, Ned: 1986, ‘Advertisement for a Semantics for Psychology’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 10, 615–678.
Block, Ned and Sylvain Bromberger: 1980, ‘States' Rights’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3, 73.
Braitenberg, V.: 1984, Vehicles, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Carew, T. J., E. T. Walters, and E. R. Kandel: 1981, ‘Classical Conditioning in a Simple Withdrawal Reflex in Aplysia californica’, Journal of Neuroscience 1, 1426–1437.
Churchland, P. M.: 1979, Scientific Realism and the Plasticity of Mind, Cambridge University Press.
Churchland, P. M.: 1981, ‘Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes’, Journal of Philosophy 78, 67–90.
Churchland, P. M.: 1986, ‘Cognitive Neurobiology: A Computational Hypothesis for Laminar Cortex’, Biology and Philosophy 1, 25–51.
Churchland, P. S.: 1980, ‘A Perspective on Mind-Brain Research’, Journal of Philosophy 77, 185.
Churchland, P. S.: 1986, Neurophilosophy, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Crow, T. J. and D. L. Alkon: 1978, ‘Retention of an Associative Behavioral Change in Hermissenda’, Science 201, 1239–1241.
Crow, T. J. and D. L. Alkon: 1980, ‘Associative Behavioral Modification in Hermissenda: Cellular Correlates’, Science 209, 412–414.
Danto, A. C.: 1973, ‘Representational Properties and Mind-Body Identity’, Review of Metaphysics 26, 401–411.
Danto, A. C.: 1981, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Davidson, D.: 1970, ‘Mental Events’, in D. L. Foster and J. W. Swanson (eds.), Experience and Theory, University of Massachusetts Press.
Davidson, D.: 1974, ‘On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme’, Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 47.
Davis, W. J. and R. G. Gillette: 1978, ‘Neural Correlate of Behavioral Plasticity in Command Neurons of Pluerobranchaea’, Science 199, 801–804.
Dennett, D. C.: 1978a, Brainstorms, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Dennett, D.C.: 1978b, ‘Why Not the Whole Iguana?’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1, 103–104.
Dennett, D. C.: 1983, ‘Intentional Systems in Cognitive Ethology: The “Panglossian Paradigm” Defended’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6, 343–390.
Dennett, D. C.: 1984a, ‘Cognitive Wheels: The Frame Problem in AI’, in Christopher Hookway (ed.), Minds, Machines, and Evolution, Cambridge University Press.
Dennett, D. C.: 1984b, ‘The Logical Geography of Computational Approaches: A View from the East Pole’, Presented to the Annual Meeting of the Society for Philosophy and Psychology.
Dennett, D. C.: 1986, ‘Evolution, Error, and Intentionality’, CCM-86-1, Center for Cognitive Studies, Tufts University, Medford, Mass.
Detwiler, P. B. and D. L. Alkon: 1973, ‘Hair Cell Interactions in the Statocyst of Hermissenda’, Journal of General Physiology 62, 618–642.
Dretske, F. I.: 1981, Knowledge and the Flow of Information, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Dretske, F. I.: 1983, ‘Why Information?’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6(1), 82–90.
Dretske, F. I. and Berent Enc: 1984, ‘Causal Theories of Knowledge’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 9, 517–528.
Dupré, John: 1984, ‘Probabilistic Causality Emancipated’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 9, 169–176.
Farley, J. and D. L. Alkon: 1982, ‘Associative Neural and Behavioral Change in Hermissenda: Consequences of Nervous System Orientation for Light and Pairing Specificity’, Journal of Neurophysiology 48, 785–807.
Farley, J., W. G. Richards, L. J. Ling, E. Liman, and D. L. Alkon: 1983, ‘Membrane Changes in a Single Photoreceptor Cause Associative Learning in Hermissenda’, Science 221, 1201–1203.
Feldman, J. A.: 1981, ‘A Connectionist Model of Visual Memory’, in Hinton and Anderson 1981.
Feldman, J. A. and D. H. Ballard: 1982, ‘Connectionist Models and Their Properties’, Cognitive Science 6, 205–254.
Fodor, J. A.: 1975, The Language of Thought, Crowell, New York.
Fodor, J. A.: 1981, Representations, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Fodor, J. A.: 1983, The Modularity of Mind, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Fodor, J. A.: 1984, ‘Semantics, Wisconsin Style’, Synthese 59, 1–20.
Fodor, J. A.: forthcoming, ‘Psychosemantics, or: Where Do Truth Conditions Come From?’, in E. LePore (ed.), Essays for Donald Davidson.
Gelperin, A., S. J. Wieland, and S. R. Barry: 1984, ‘A Strategy for Cellular Analysis of Associative Learning in a Terrestrial Mollusk’, in D. L. Alkon and J. Farley (eds.), Primary Neural Substrates of Learning and Behavioral Change, Cambridge University Press, pp. 229–258.
Gibson, James: 1979, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Ginet, Carl: 1983, ‘Four Difficulties with Dretske's Theory of Knowledge’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6(1), 69–70.
Glass, A. L., K. J. Holyoak, and J. L. Santa: 1979, Cognition, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Goh, Y. and D. L. Alkon: 1984, ‘Sensory, Interneuronal, and Motor Interactions within Hermissenda Visual Pathway’, Journal of Neurophysiology 52, 156–169.
Goodman, N.: 1968, Languages of Art, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis.
Harmon, G.: 1973, Thought, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Haugeland, John: 1978, ‘The Nature and Plausibility of Cognitivism’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1, 215.
Hawkins, R. D., T. W. Abrams, T. J. Carew, and E. R. Kandel: 1983, ‘A Cellular Mechanism of Classical Conditioning in Aplysia: Activity-dependent Amplification of Presynaptic Facilitation’, Science 219, 400–405.
Hawkins, R. D., V. F. Castelluci, and E. R. Kandel: 1981, ‘Interneurons Involved in Mediation and Modulation of Gill-Withdrawal Reflex in Aplysia, II. Identified Neurons Produce Heterosynaptic Facilitation Contributing to Behavioral Sensitization’, Journal of Neurophysiology 45, 315–326.
Hawkins, R. D. and E. R. Kandel: 1984, ‘Is There a Cell-Biological Alphabet for Simple Forms of Learning?’, Psychological Review 91, 375–391.
Heil, J.: 1981, ‘Does Cognitive Psychology Rest on a Mistake?’, Mind 90, 321–342.
Hinton, G. E. and J. A. Anderson: 1981, Parallel Models of Associative Memory, Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hoyle, G.: 1984, ‘The Scope of Neuroethology’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7, 367–412.
Hubel, D. H. and T. N. Wiesel: 1972, ‘Laminar and Columnar Distribution of Geniculo-Cortical Fibers in the Macaque Monkey’, Journal of Comparative Neurology 146, 421–450.
Jerussi, T. P. and D. L. Alkon: 1981, ‘Ocular and Extraocular Responses of Identifiable Neurons in Pedal Ganglia of Hermissenda crassicornis’, Journal of Neurophysiology 46, 659–671.
Kandel, E. R.: 1976, The Cellular Basis of Behavior, Freeman, San Francisco.
Kandel, E. R.: 1979, Behavioral Biology of Aplysia, Freeman, San Francisco.
Kandel, E. R. and J. H. Schwartz: 1982, ‘Molecular Biology of Learning: Modulation of Transmitter Release’, Science 218, 433–443.
Kanz, J. E., L. B. Eberley, J. S. Cobbs, and H. M. Pinsker: 1979, ‘Neuronal Correlates of Siphon Withdrawal in Freely Behaving Aplysia’, Journal of Neurophysiology 42, 1538–1556.
Kelso, Stephen R., Alan H. Ganong, and Thomas H. Brown: 1986, ‘Hebbian Synapses in Hippocampus’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 83, 5326–5330.
Kim, Jaegwon: 1969, ‘Events and Their Descriptions, Some Considerations’, in N. Rescher (ed.), Essays in Honor of Carl G. Hempel, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, Holland.
Kim, Jaegwon: 1973, ‘Causation, Nomic Subsumption, and the Conception of Event’, Journal of Philosophy 70(8), 217–236.
Lederhendler, I. I., E. S. Barnes, and D. L. Alkon: 1980, ‘Complex Responses to Light of the Nudibranch Hermissenda crassicornis (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia)’, Behavioral and Neural Biology 28, 218–230.
Lederhendler, I. I., S. Gart, and D. L. Alkon: 1983, ‘Associative Learning in Hermissenda crassicornis (Gastropoda), Evidence That Light: The CS, Takes on Characteristics of Rotation: The UCS’, Biological Bulletin 165, 528.
Lederhendler, I. I., Serge Gart, and D. L. Alkon: 1986, ‘Classical Conditioning of Hermissenda, Origin of a New Response’, Journal of Neuroscience 6(5), 1325–1331.
Lederhendler, I. I., Y. Goh, and D. L. Alkon: 1982, Type B Photoreceptor Changes Predict Modification of Motorneuron Responses to Light During Retention of Hermissenda Associative Conditioning’, Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 8, 824.
Lloyd, D. E.: 1982, Picturing, Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University.
Lloyd, D. E.: 1985, ‘The Inevitability of Physiology in the Scientific Study of the Mind’, Presented to the Pacific Division, American Philosophical Association.
Lockery, S.: forthcoming, ‘Representation, Functionalism, and Simple Living Systems’.
Lukowiak, Ken: 1986, ‘In vitro Classical Conditioning of a Gill Withdrawal Reflex in Aplysia, Neural Correlates and Possible Neural Mechanisms’, Journal of Neurobiology 17(2), 83–102.
Mackintosh, N. J.: 1975, ‘From Classical Conditioning to Discrimination Learning’, in W. K. Estes (ed.), Handbook of Learning and Cognitive Processes, Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 151–189.
McClelland, James L. and David E. Rumelhart: 1986, Parallel Distributed Processing, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Marr, D.: 1982, Vision, Freeman, San Francisco.
Mauk, Michael, D., Joseph E. Steinmetz, and Richard Thomson: 1986, ‘Classical Conditioning Using Stimulation of the Inferior Olive as the Unconditioned Stimulus’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 83, 5349–5353.
Millikan, R. G.: 1984, Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Minsky, M.: 1974, ‘A Framework for Representing Knowledge’, MIT AI Lab. Memo 306.
Newell, A. and H. A. Simon: 1976, ‘Computer Science as Empirical Inquiry, Symbols and Search’, Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 19, 113–126.
Pellionisz, A. and R. Llinas: 1982, ‘Space-Time Representation in the Brain, The Cerebellum as a Predictive Space-Time Metric Tensor’, Neuroscience 7, 2949–2970.
Putnam, Hilary: 1966, ‘The Mental Life of Some Machines’, in H. Casteneda (ed.), Intentionality, Mind, and Perception, Wayne State University Press.
Putnam, Hilary: 1975, ‘The Meaning of ‘Meaning’’, in Keith Gunderson (ed.), Language, Mind, and Knowledge, Minneapolis.
Putnam, Hillary: 1981, Reason, Truth, and History, Cambridge University Press.
Putnam, Hilary: 1985, The Many Faces of Realism (The 1985 Carus Lectures), Department of Philosophy, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Quinn, W.: 1984, ‘Work in Invertebrates on the Mechanisms Underlying Learning’, in P. C. Marler and H. S. Terrace (eds.), Dahlem Workshop on the Biology of Learning, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Rescorla, R. A.: 1975, ‘Pavlovian Excitatory and Inhibitory Conditioning’, in W. K. Estes (ed.), Handbook of Learning and Cognitive Processes, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 7–35.
Rescorla, R. A.: 1984, ‘Comments on Three Pavlovian Paradigms’, in D. L. Alkon and J. Farley (eds.), Primary Neural Substrates of Learning and Behavioral Change, Cambridge University Press, pp. 25–46.
Roitblat, H. L.: 1982, ‘The Meaning of Representation in Animal Memory’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5, 352–406.
Sahley, C.: 1984, ‘Learning in the Leech’, Talk given to the Conference on Leech Biology and Performance, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, August 21, 1984.
Shannon, C. and W. Weaver: 1949, The Mathematical Theory of Communication, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
Shepard, R. and L. Cooper: 1982, Mental Images and Their Transformations, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Stampe, Dennis: 1975, ‘Show and Tell’, in Bruce Freed et al. (eds.), Forms of Representation, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Stampe, D.: 1979, ‘Toward a Causal Theory of Linguistic Representation’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 2, 42.
Stich, S.: 1983, From Folk Psychology to Cognitive Science, The Case Against Belief, Bradford Books/MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Suppes, Patrick: 1984, ‘Conflicting Intuitions about Causality’, Midwest Studies in Philosophy 9, 151–168.
Tabata, M. and D. L. Alkon: 1982, ‘Positive Synaptic Feedback in Visual System of Nudibranch Mollusk Hermissenda crassicornis'’, Journal of Neurophysiology 48, 174–191.
Thompson, R. F., J. D. Barchas, G. A. Clark, N. Donegan, R. E. Kettner, D. G. Lavond, J. Madden, M. D. Mauk, and D. A. McCormick: 1984, ‘Neuronal Substrates of Associative Learning in the Mammalian Brain’, in D. L. Alkon and J. Farley (eds.), Primary Neural Substrates of Learning and Behavioral Change, Cambridge University Press, pp. 71–101.
Walters, E. T. and J. H. Byrne: 1983, ‘Associative Conditioning of Single Neurons Suggests a Cellular Mechanism for Learning’, Science 219, 405–408.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lloyd, D. Mental representation from the bottom up. Synthese 70, 23–78 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00414026
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00414026