Abstract
In this paper, we challenge one of the criticisms against the idea of a universal basic income (UBI), namely, that people will waste the support on high-end consumption. We rely on the literature from various disciplines from which we developed high- and low-UBI scenarios for respondents to decide what they would do if the state were to provide an unconditional stipend. We analyzed the multiple-choice responses, using an ordered probit, and the written explanations of the respondents’ choices, using content analysis. The results suggest that while a higher UBI would increase consumption, it would likely be done responsibly. People with low incomes showed restraint in all categories. The qualitative analysis captures some of the complexities of people’s socioeconomic circumstances that support the notion of responsible consumption. The policy implication is that a UBI could be introduced at a low level and gradually increased to a level that maximizes societal benefits.
Acknowledgment
We wish to acknowledge the insightful comments and feedback from Dr. Daniel Navarro Martinez of Universitat Pompeu Fabra. We appreciated his input related to study design and data collection strategies.
References
Aaker, J. L., Benet-Martinez, V., & Garolera, J. (2001). Consumption symbols as carriers of culture: A study of Japanese and Spanish brand personality constucts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(3), 492.10.1037/0022-3514.81.3.492Search in Google Scholar
Alchian, A. A. (1950). Uncertainty, evolution, and economic theory. Journal of Political Economy, 58(3), 211–221.10.1086/256940Search in Google Scholar
Alvarez, R. M., & Brehm, J. (2020). Hard choices, easy answers: Values, information, and American public opinion. Princeton University Press.10.2307/j.ctv15r58jzSearch in Google Scholar
Anderson, S. (2003). Why dowry payments declined with modernization in Europe but are rising in India. Journal of Political Economy, 111(2), 269–310.10.1086/367679Search in Google Scholar
Anon. (2019a). Do the employment requirements for eligibility apply to everyone? https://eligibility.com/food-stamps/do-the-employment-requirements-for-eligibility-apply-to-everyone [Accessed 5 June 2019].Search in Google Scholar
Anon. (2019b). Food stamps eligibility – SNAP program eligibility help. https://eligibility.com/food-stamps [Accessed 5 June 2019].Search in Google Scholar
Attanasio, O., Hurst, E., & Pistaferri, L. (2012). The Evolution of income, consumption, and leisure inequality in the US, 1980–2010.10.3386/w17982Search in Google Scholar
Baird, M., Ouschan, R., & Phau, I. (2011). Discrepancies of positive and negative consumption expectations in high risk drinking experiences. Australasian Marketing Journal, 19(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2010.08.001.Search in Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.Search in Google Scholar
Bastian, J., & Michelmore, K. (2018). The long-term impact of the earned income tax credit on children’s education and employment outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(4), 1127–1163. https://doi.org/10.1086/697477.Search in Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F. (1996). Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0701_1.Search in Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control : How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego, CA, US: Academic Press.Search in Google Scholar
Ben-Ami, M., Hornik, J., Eden, D., & Kaplan, O. (2014). Boosting consumers’ self-efficacy by repositioning the self. European Journal of Marketing, 48(11/12), 1914–1938. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-09-2010-0502.Search in Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2003). Pleasures of the brain. Brain and Cognition, 52(1), 106–128.10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00014-9Search in Google Scholar
Bronstein, J. L. (2016). Two nations, indivisible: A history of inequality in America. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger, an imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC.Search in Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2019). Table A-1. Employment status of the civilian population by sex and age. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t01.htm [Accessed 17 Apr 2019].Search in Google Scholar
Butz, W. P., & Ward, M. P. (1979). The emergence of countercyclical US fertility. The American Economic Review, 69(3), 318–328.Search in Google Scholar
Buunk, B. P., & Van Yperen, N. W. (1991). Referential comparisons, relational comparisons, and exchange orientation: Their relation to marital satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(6), 709–717.10.1177/0146167291176015Search in Google Scholar
Caliendo, S. M. (2014). Inequality in America: Race, poverty, and fulfilling democracy’s promise. Boulder: Westview Press, a Member of the Perseus Books Group.Search in Google Scholar
Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. E. (1980). The American voter. University of Chicago Press.Search in Google Scholar
Case, A., Garrib, A., Menendez, A., & Olgiati, A. (2008). Paying the piper: The high cost of funerals in South Africa [online]. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1294131.10.3386/w14456Search in Google Scholar
Chai, A. (2017). Rethinking the economic possibilities of our grandchildren: What is the future of consumption? Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 27(2), 215–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00191-017-0493-9.Search in Google Scholar
Chien, Y., & Morris, P. (2017). Does a state’s political stance impact its government revenues and spending? Economic Synopses, 2017(18). https://doi.org/10.20955/es.2017.18.Search in Google Scholar
Chin, E. (2001). Anthropologist takes inner-city children on shopping sprees. In Purchasing power black kids and American consumer culture NED-new edition [online] (pp. 117–142). University of Minnesota Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libezproxy2.syr.edu/stable/10.5749/j.cttts841.9 [Accessed 21 Dec 2020].Search in Google Scholar
Christopher, B. (2017). State stops refusing extra welfare to moms who have more children CALmatters [online] (pp. 117–142) [online]. Retrieved from https://calmatters.org/articles/about-face-state-stops-refusing-extra-aid-to-moms-on-welfare-who-have-more-children/ [Accessed 7 June 2019].Search in Google Scholar
Clark, A. E., Frijters, P., & Shields, M. A. (2008). Relative income, happiness, and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(1), 95–144.10.1257/jel.46.1.95Search in Google Scholar
Clark, B., Chatterjee, K., & Melia, S. (2016). Changes in level of household car ownership: The role of life events and spatial context. Transportation, 43(4), 565–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-015-9589-y.Search in Google Scholar
Clarke, I.III, Micken, K. S., & Hart, H. S. (2002). Symbols for sale … At least for now: Symbolic consumption in transition economies. In S. Broniarczyk, K. Nakamoto, & G. A. Valdosta (Eds.), Advances in consumer research volume 29 (pp. 25–30). Association for Consumer Research.Search in Google Scholar
Córdoba, J. C., & Ripoll, M. (2016). Intergenerational transfers and the fertility–income relationship. The Economic Journal, 126(593), 949–977. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12197.Search in Google Scholar
Croteau, A.-M., Dyer, L., & Miguel, M. (2010). Employee reactions to paper and electronic surveys: An experimental comparison. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communications, 53(3), 249–259.10.1109/TPC.2010.2052852Search in Google Scholar
Dahl, G. B., & Lochner, L. (2012). The impact of family income on child achievement: Evidence from the earned income tax credit. The American Economic Review, 102(5), 1927–1956. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.5.1927.Search in Google Scholar
Deb, R. (2009). A testable model of consumption with externalities. Journal of Economic Theory, 144(4), 1804–1816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jet.2009.01.010.Search in Google Scholar
DellaPosta, D., Shi, Y., & Macy, M. (2015). Why do liberals drink lattes? American Journal of Sociology, 120(5), 1473–1511. https://doi.org/10.1086/681254.Search in Google Scholar
Dickinson, M. (2016). Working for food stamps: Economic citizenship and the post-Fordist welfare state in New York City. American Ethnologist, 43(2), 270–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12304.Search in Google Scholar
Downes, A., & Lansley, S. (2018). It’s basic income: The global debate. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.10.2307/j.ctt21kk256Search in Google Scholar
Dunstone, K., Brennan, E., Slater, M. D., Dixon, H. G., Durkin, S. J., Pettigrew, S., & Wakefield, M.A. (2017). Alcohol harm reduction advertisements: A content analysis of topic, objective, emotional tone, execution and target audience. BMC Public Health, 17(1). 312–312.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4218-7.Search in Google Scholar
Evans, D. K., & Popova, A. (2014). Cash transfers and temptation goods: A review of global evidence [online]. Retrieved from http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/617631468001808739/pdf/WPS6886.pdf.10.1596/1813-9450-6886Search in Google Scholar
Evans, W. N., & Garthwaite, C. L. (2014). Giving mom a break: The impact of higher EITC payments on maternal health. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 6(2), 258–290.10.3386/w16296Search in Google Scholar
FAN, E. (2010). Does public income induce more consumption? The Economic Record, 86(272), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2009.00591.x.Search in Google Scholar
Fejos, Z. (2000). Coca-cola and the chain bridge of Budapest. Ethnologia Europaea, 30(1), 15–30.10.16995/ee.898Search in Google Scholar
Feldman, S. (1988). Structure and consistency in public opinion: The role of core beliefs and values. American Journal of Political Science, 32(2), 416–440.10.2307/2111130Search in Google Scholar
Ferreira, M. Â., Tamashiro, H. R. da S., & Braga, S. S. (2017). An exploratory study on the dimensions that motivate the attitudes of young consumers to the consumption of luxury products. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 8(4), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1515/mjss-2017-0008.Search in Google Scholar
Fiszbein, A., & Schady, N. R. (2009). Conditional cash transfers: Reducing present and future poverty. The World Bank.10.1596/978-0-8213-7352-1Search in Google Scholar
Fitzsimons, G. J., & Williams, P. (2000). Asking questions can change choice behavior: Does it do so automatically or effortfully? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 6(3), 195.10.1037/1076-898X.6.3.195Search in Google Scholar
Foroughi, A., Buang, N. A., Senik, Z. C., & Hajmisadeghi, R. S. (2013). Impulse buying behavior and moderating role of gender among Iranian shoppers. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 3(4), 760–769.Search in Google Scholar
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2002). Happiness and economics: How the economy and institutions affect well-being. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.10.1515/9781400829262Search in Google Scholar
Gavens, L., Goyder, E., Hock, E. S., Harris, J., & Meier, P. S. (2016). Alcohol consumption after health deterioration in older adults: A mixed-methods study. Public Health (London), 139, 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2016.05.016.Search in Google Scholar
Gell, A. (1998). Art and agency: An anthropological theory. New York, Oxford: Clarendon Press.Search in Google Scholar
Goenka, S., & Thomas, M. (2019). The malleable morality of conspicuous consumption. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000237.Search in Google Scholar
Goldsmith, R. E., Flynn, L. R., & Kim, D. (2014). Status consumption and price sensitivity. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 18(4), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.2753/mtp1069-6679180402.Search in Google Scholar
Goodman, J. K., Cryder, C. E., & Cheema, A. (2012). Data collection in a flat world: Accelerating consumer behavior research by using Mechanical Turk. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26(3), 213–224.10.1002/bdm.1753Search in Google Scholar
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029.10.1037/a0015141Search in Google Scholar
Green, D. P., Palmquist, B., & Schickler, E. (2004). Partisan hearts and minds: Political parties and the social identities of voters. Yale University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Grusky, D. B., & Weeden, K. A. (2001). Decomposition without death: A research agenda for a new class analysis. Acta Sociologica, 44(3), 203–218.10.1177/000169930104400301Search in Google Scholar
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. (2007). When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Research, 20(1), 98–116.10.1007/s11211-007-0034-zSearch in Google Scholar
Hassel, A. (2018). Unconditional basic income is a dead end. In A. Downes, & S. Lansley (Eds.), It’s basic income: The global debate (pp. 113–116). Bristol, UK: Policy Press.10.2307/j.ctt21kk256.27Search in Google Scholar
Heath, C. (1999). On the social psychology of agency relationships: Lay theories of motivation overemphasize extrinsic incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 78(1), 25–62. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1999.2826.Search in Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J., Humphries, J. E., & Mader, N. S. (2011). The GED. Handbook of the Economics of Education, 3, 423–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53429-3.00009-0.Search in Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J., & Rubinstein, Y. (2001). The importance of noncognitive skills: Lessons from the GED testing program. The American Economic Review, 91(2), 145–149.10.1257/aer.91.2.145Search in Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J., & Walker, J. R. (1990). The relationship between wages and income and the timing and spacing of births: Evidence from Swedish longitudinal data. Econometrica, 58(6), 1411–1441. https://doi.org/10.2307/2938322.Search in Google Scholar
Hill, R. P. (2001). Surviving in a material world: The lived experience of people in poverty. University of Notre Dame Press.10.1177/089124101030004002Search in Google Scholar
Hoynes, H. W., & Patel, A. J. (2015). Effective policy for reducing inequality? The earned income tax credit and the distribution of income. NBER working paper [online]. Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w21340.pdfhttps://doi.org/10.3386/w21340.10.3386/w21340Search in Google Scholar
Jaikumar, S., & Sarin, A. (2015). Conspicuous consumption and income inequality in an emerging economy: Evidence from India. Marketing Letters, 26(3), 279–292.10.1007/s11002-015-9350-5Search in Google Scholar
Kaus, W. (2013). Conspicuous consumption and “race”: Evidence from South Africa. Journal of Development Economics, 100(1), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2012.07.004.Search in Google Scholar
Kelly, D., Harper, D. J., & Landau, B. (2008). Questionnaire mode effects in interactive information retrieval experiments. Information Processing & Management, 44(1), 122–141.10.1016/j.ipm.2007.02.007Search in Google Scholar
Kozinets, R. V., & Handelman, J. M. (2004). Adversaries of consumption: Consumer movements, activism, and ideology. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(3), 691–704.10.1086/425104Search in Google Scholar
Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121–1134.10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121Search in Google Scholar
Lavrakas, P. (Ed.). (2008). Extreme response style. In Encyclopedia of survey research methods [online]. Thousand Oaks California: Sage Publications, Inc. Retrieved from http://methods.sagepub.com/reference/encyclopedia-of-survey-research-methods/n173.xml.https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947.n173 [Accessed 1 June 2019].10.4135/9781412963947.n173Search in Google Scholar
Lisjak, M., Levav, J., & Rucker, D. D. (2014). Compensatory consumption as self- and social-signaling. Advances in Consumer Research, 42, 156.Search in Google Scholar
Locke, E. A. (1991). The motivation sequence, the motivation hub, and the motivation core. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 288–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90023-M.Search in Google Scholar
Lucas, R. E. (1986). Adaptive behavior and economic theory. Journal of Business, 59(4), S401–S426. https://doi.org/10.1086/296377.Search in Google Scholar
Luttmer, E. (2005). Neighbors as negatives: Relative earnings and well-being. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120(3), 963–I002.10.3386/w10667Search in Google Scholar
Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341(6149), 976. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1238041.Search in Google Scholar
Mead, N. L., Baumeister, R. F., Stillman, T. F., Rawn, C. D., & Vohs, K. D. (2011). Social exclusion causes people to spend and consume strategically in the service of affiliation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(5), 902–919.10.1086/656667Search in Google Scholar
Miller, D. (1995). Unwrapping Christmas. New York, Oxford: Clarendon Press.Search in Google Scholar
Mingione, E. (1996). Urban poverty in the advanced industrial world: Concepts, analysis and debates. In: Mingione, E. (Ed.), Urban poverty and the underclass: A Reader (pp. 1–40). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.10.1002/9780470712900.ch1Search in Google Scholar
Moav, O., & Neeman, Z. (2012). Saving rates and poverty: The role of conspicuous consumption and human capital. The Economic Journal, 122(563), 933–956.10.2139/ssrn.1727272Search in Google Scholar
Moran, R. L. (2011). Consuming relief: Food stamps and the new welfare of the new deal. Journal of American History, 97(4), 1001–1022.10.1093/jahist/jaq067Search in Google Scholar
Morsy, S. A. (1986). The bad, the ugly, the super-rich, and the exceptional moderate: U.S. Popular images of the Arabs. Journal of Popular Culture, 20(3), 13.10.1111/j.0022-3840.1986.2003_13.xSearch in Google Scholar
Morwitz, V. G., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2004). The mere-measurement effect: Why does measuring intentions change actual behavior? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1–2), 64–74.10.1207/s15327663jcp1401&2_8Search in Google Scholar
Murnane, R. J., Bernhardt, A. D., & Appelbaum, E. (2003). Low-wage America: How employers are reshaping opportunity in the workplace. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Search in Google Scholar
Murray, H. (1938). Explorations in personality. Oxford, England: Oxford Univ. Press.Search in Google Scholar
Nasco, S. A., Hale, D., & Thomas, M. (2012). Mature consumers speak: Insights on information search and self-efficacy for service purchases. Services Marketing Quarterly, 33(2), 119–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332969.2012.662458.Search in Google Scholar
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). (2018). Alcohol facts and statistics. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics [Accessed 9 Apr 2019].Search in Google Scholar
Papachristou, H., Nederkoorn, C., Havermans, R., van der Horst, M., & Jansen, A. (2012). Can’t stop the craving. The effect of impulsivity on cue-elicited craving for alcohol in heavy and light social drinkers. Psychopharmacology, 219(2), 511–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2240-5.Search in Google Scholar
Paulose, D. (2016). A study on the role of materialism in triggering conspicuous consumption among emigrants from Kerala. International Journal of Marketing & Business Communication, 5(2).10.21863/ijmbc/2016.5.2.032Search in Google Scholar
Pendyala, R. M., Kostyniuk, L. P., & Goulias, K. G. (1995). A repeated cross-sectional evaluation of car ownership. Transportation, 22(2), 165–184.10.1007/BF01099438Search in Google Scholar
Pickering, K. (2000). Alternative economic strategies in low-income rural communities: TANF, labor migration, and the case of the pine ridge Indian reservation. Rural Sociology, 65(1), 148–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2000.tb00347.x.Search in Google Scholar
Prabhu, J., & Tellis, G. J. (2000). Do consumers ever learn? Analysis of segment behavior in experimental markets. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 13(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200001/03)13:1<19::AID-BDM334>3.0.CO;2-Z.10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200001/03)13:1<19::AID-BDM334>3.0.CO;2-ZSearch in Google Scholar
Rawls, J. (1988). The priority of right and ideas of the good. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 17(4), 251–276.Search in Google Scholar
Rook, D. W. (1987). The buying impulse. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(2), 189–199.10.1086/209105Search in Google Scholar
Rook, D. W., & Fisher, R. J. (1995). Normative influences on impulsive buying behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(3), 305–313. https://doi.org/10.1086/209452.Search in Google Scholar
Roook, D. W., & Gardner, M. P. (1993). In the mood: Impulse buying’s affective antecedents. In Research in consumer behavior, 6(7), 1–28.Search in Google Scholar
Room, R. (2005). Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug and Alcohol Review, 24(2), 143–155.10.1080/09595230500102434Search in Google Scholar
Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110(1), 145–172.10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145Search in Google Scholar
Ryan, C. L., & Bauman, K. (2016). Educational attainment in the United States: 2015 [online]. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Schembri, S. (2009). Reframing brand experience: The experiential meaning of Harley–Davidson. Journal of Business Research, 62(12), 1299–1310.10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.11.004Search in Google Scholar
Schneider, H. (2017). Universal basic income — empty dreams of paradise. Intereconomics, 52(2), 83–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10272-017-0651-1.Search in Google Scholar
Schouten, J. W., & McAlexander, J. H. (1995). Subcultures of consumption: An ethnography of the new bikers. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(1), 43–61.10.1086/209434Search in Google Scholar
Schwartz, T., Gomes, J., & McCarthy, C. (2010). The way we’re working isn’t working: The four forgotten needs that energize great performance. New York, NY: Free Press.Search in Google Scholar
Simmel, G. (1997). The philosophy of fashion. In D. Frisby, & M. Featherstone (Eds.), Simmel on culture: Selected writings (pp. 187–205). Sage.10.5040/9781847887153.v4-0091Search in Google Scholar
Sobin, D. P. (1973). The working poor: Minority workers in low-wage, low-skill jobs. Port Washington, N.Y: Kennikat Press.Search in Google Scholar
Souiden, N., M’Saad, B., & Pons, F. (2011). A cross-cultural analysis of consumers’ conspicuous consumption of branded fashion accessories. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23(5), 329–343.10.1080/08961530.2011.602951Search in Google Scholar
Stiglitz, J. E. (2008). Toward a general theory of consumerism: Reflections on Keynes’s Economic possibilities for our grandchildren. In L. Pecchi, & G. Piga (Eds.), Revisiting keynes: Economic possibilities for our grandchildren (pp. 41–86). Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/9780262162494.003.0004Search in Google Scholar
Stoean, L. (2016). Decision process in car purchase. Quality – Access to Success, 17(S1), 382–388.Search in Google Scholar
Sue, V. M., & Ritter, L. A. (2012). Conducting online surveys. London: Sage.10.4135/9781506335186Search in Google Scholar
Tanner, J. C. (1981). Expenditure of time and money on travel. Transportation Research Part A: General, 15(1), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-2607(83)90013-4.Search in Google Scholar
Thompson, L. E., Barnett, J. R., & Pearce, J. R. (2009). Scared straight? Fear-appeal anti-smoking campaigns, risk, self-efficacy and addiction. Health, Risk & Society, 11(2), 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698570902784281.Search in Google Scholar
Todorova, Z. (2013). Conspicuous consumption as routine expenditure and its place in the social provisioning process. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 72(5), 1183–1204.10.1111/ajes.12039Search in Google Scholar
Tomlinson, M. (2003). Lifestyle and social class. European Sociological Review, 19(1), 97–111.10.1093/esr/19.1.97Search in Google Scholar
United States Courts. (2018). Just the facts: Consumer bankruptcy filings, 2006–2017. https://www.uscourts.gov/news/2018/03/07/just-facts-consumer-bankruptcy-filings-2006-2017 [Accessed 9 Apr 2019].Search in Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. (2016). America’s age profile told through population pyramids. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2016/06/americas-age-profile-told-through-population-pyramids.html [Accessed 17 April 2019].Search in Google Scholar
Van Kempen*, L. (2004). Are the poor willing to pay a premium for designer labels? A field experiment in Bolivia. Oxford Development Studies, 32(2), 205–224.10.1080/13600810410001699957Search in Google Scholar
Vohra, A. V. (2016). Materialism, impulse buying and conspicuous consumption: A qualitative research. Global Business Review, 17(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150915610682.Search in Google Scholar
Whitfield, E. (2018). Why a basic income is not good enough. In A. Downes, & S. Lansley (Eds.), It’s basic income: The global debate (pp. 109–112). Bristol, UK: Policy Press.10.2307/j.ctt21kk256.26Search in Google Scholar
Williams, C. E. (2020). Taking bold action on homelessness- new leaf project [online]. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5f07a92f21d34b403c788e05/t/5f751297fcfe7968a6a957a8/1601507995038/2020_09_30_FSC_Statement_of_Impact_w_Expansion.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
Wood, M. (1998). Socio-economic status, delay of gratification, and impulse buying. Journal of Economic Psychology, 19(3), 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(98)00009-9.Search in Google Scholar
World Bank (2013). Inclusion matters: The foundation for shared prosperity. Washington, D.C: The World Bank.10.1596/9781464800108Search in Google Scholar
Zheng, X., Baskin, E., & Peng, S. (2018). Feeling inferior, showing off: The effect of nonmaterial social comparisons on conspicuous consumption. Journal of Business Research, 90, 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.04.041.Search in Google Scholar
Zukin, S., & Maguire, J. S. (2004). Consumers and consumption. Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1), 173–197. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110553.Search in Google Scholar
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston