Education and Culture

Introduction

At the end of The Public and Its Problems (Dewey, 1927/1954), John Dewey alighted upon the “the problem of the public,” which is the improvement of the “methods of debate, discussion, and persuasion” (p. 208). Given Dewey’s conception of democracy, one which is squarely focused on communicated experiences (Dewey, 1916) and beginning in conversation (as cited in Lamont, 1959, p. 88), the problem of the public (as well as the resolution) is congruent with the problem of democracy (Dewey, 1927/1954). The vibrancy of democratic citizens in terms of their decision-making and efforts toward improving the common good is predicated on the ability to improve discussion and debate, which is based on “freeing and perfecting the process of inquiry” (Dewey, 1927/1954, p. 208). Reflective inquiry, as the method of intelligence in a democracy, is not naturally occurring, nor a facile process. Rather, reflective inquiry demands fortitude, patience, circumspection, open-mindedness, wholeheartedness, and responsibility (Dewey, 1933). These skills and requisite dispositions are taught and practiced, but to what end? Reflectively inquire about what? Many societies truncate that which can be reflected upon, leaving citizens to ponder ideas and topics in unwholesome corners, without the guidance of an intelligent teacher (Dewey, 1940).

The major barrier to reflective inquiry is habit, often found in tradition and custom. Habits, including prejudice or pre-judgment, bind us and routinize our affairs whereby false idols of knowledge (Dewey, 1933), those of impulse, tradition, authority, and personal experience, serve as vices to both reflection and communication. Dewey most saliently tackled these issues in How We Think (1933) and The Theory of the Moral Life (1908/1960) and alerted us to the tocsins of the public, but also democracy itself. In particular, the tense dualities of public and private, as well as customary and dynamic morality, thwart citizens’ rational consideration of beliefs and construction of knowledge.

The intersection of these tense dualities is where controversial issues live. In this sense, controversial issues, which are avoided or ignored within non-reflective habits, are the underlying problem for the public, both domestically and abroad. [End Page 47] To what extent can or will schools provide the conditions for teachers and students to broach controversial issues and invite them to the method of reflective inquiry? The ideal Dewey advanced to resolve the problem of the public was conversation, reflective inquiry, and improved “conjoint communicated experience,” (1916, p. 87) or democracy, all of which are predicated on the milieu, which provides pathways or obstacles to these ends. Facts need “free play” (Dewey, 1927/1954, p. 3) and any fatuous value of a priori ends, especially in matters of ethics, which Dewey equated with “human relations in action” (Dewey, 1893, p. 57), highlights the importance of context. In short, the milieu very much matters for the extent to which the public’s problem can be solved.

The Importance of Controversial Issues for Democracy

Controversial issues are integral to democratic education (Camicia, 2008; Engle, 1960; Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Graseck, 2009; Hahn, 1991; Harwood & Hahn, 1990; Hess, 2008; 2009; Hunt & Metcalf, 1968; Lee, 2004; Ochoa-Becker, 2007; Oliver & Shaver, 1966). Controversies constitute a normative anchor within citizenship education curriculum, and the degree to which they are subjected to reflection has profound implications for the vibrancy of a democracy. Engaging controversial issues pays a democratic dividend for student-citizens by increasing civic participation, critical thinking skills, interpersonal skills, content understanding, and political activity. These judgments also elevate interest in current events, social studies, social issues, and increase the development of tolerance while developing democratic values, such as open-mindedness, dissent, skepticism, and embracing diversity (Curtis & Shaver, 1980; Goldensen, 1978; Harwood & Hahn, 1990; Hess & Ganzler, 2006; Hess & Posselt, 2002; Hess, 2009; Misco, 2010a, 2011a; Remy, 1972; Torney-Purta et al., 2002).

Schooling is supposed to challenge local traditions (Hlebowitsh, 2005), and unearthing controversies can help shift student focus from authoritative narratives and perspectives to heterogeneous micronarratives that draw on and challenge local and individual knowledge (Levinson, 2008). Addressing controversial issues can help widen and enlarge student experiences...