Abstract
With the aim of recovering some of their lived experiences, this chapter describes the lives of small horses who were forced to work in British coal mines. It does this from a critical perspective and looks at why and how thousands came to be transported and used, their loss of liberty, the difficult and dangerous labour forced upon them, the conditions under which they lived and the likely traumatic effects on the bodies and minds of these sentient and sensitive beings. It suggests that if it was not for the prevailaing anthropocentric legal system, this would be understood as a crime of immense proportions perpetuated against those with no power to resist.
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Notes
- 1.
Ponies are small horses, about 146cm in height or less at the shoulder.
- 2.
Slavery is a social practice which has variations over time and varies between cultures. At its core is the assumption of the right of an individual or group to use the bodies of other sentient beings for their own purposes. It might also include the claim by that group of the right of ownership of those sentient beings and other ideological claims. This is a practice where the identities of the victims can differ widely but the essential practice remains constant and therefore identifiable. The social practice with respect to these animals and many others can rightfully be described as a form of slavery.
- 3.
John Butt, ‘Coal Industry’, in The Oxford Companion to British History (Oxford University Press, 2015), http://0.www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001/acref-9780199677832-e-1031.
- 4.
Butt.
- 5.
‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com’, Newspapers.com, 6, accessed 2 June 2021, http://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=22840031&fcfToken=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJmcmVlLXZpZXctaWQiOjQwMTE2Mjc5OSwiaWF0IjoxNjIyNjIyMDI5LCJleHAiOjE2MjI3MDg0Mjl9.ITHStsPQ2F6C-UaflgGiKERx8u1DcNIz-5vFbzy0Dzw.
- 6.
‘Huskar Pit Disaster’, The Penistone Archive (blog), accessed 21 May 2021, https://penistonearchive.co.uk/huskar-pit-disaster/; ‘The Coalmining History Resource Centre. 1820–183939.Pdf’, accessed 2 June 2021, http://www.cmhrc.co.uk/cms/document/1820_39.pdf; ‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com’.
- 7.
There is a suggestion that they might not have heard this instruction.
- 8.
‘Huskar Colliery 1838—Mining Accident Database’, accessed 21 May 2021, http://mineaccidents.com.au/mine-accident/202/huskar-colliery-1838; ‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com’; ‘Huskar Pit Disaster’.
- 9.
‘Huskar Colliery 1838—Mining Accident Database’.
- 10.
‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com.’ The reason why the children thought they had permission to leave is not clear.
- 11.
‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com’, 6.
- 12.
‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com’ column 3.
- 13.
‘7 Jul 1838, 6—Sheffield and Rotherham Independent at Newspapers.Com’.
- 14.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, The Condition and Treatment of the Children Employed in the Mines and Colliers of the United Kingdom. Carefully Compiled from the Appendix to the First Report of the Commissioners … With Copious Extracts from the Evidence, and Illustrative Engravings. [The Preface Signed: W.C.], 1842, http://access.bl.uk/item/viewer/ark:/81055/vdc_100054704592.0x000001.
- 15.
Pp 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 15, 16, 20, 34, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 51, 52, 53, 58, 62, 63, 70, 74, 82, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90.
- 16.
See especially pp 20, 41, 44, 52, 74, 89.
- 17.
‘UFR LCE—Département d’études Anglophones—The Mines Act, 1842’, 21 July 2011, https://web.archive.org/web/20110721022926/http://anglais.u-paris10.fr/spip.php?article88; ‘MINES AND COLLIERIES. (Hansard, 1 August 1842)’, accessed 24 May 2021, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1842/aug/01/mines-and-collieries; ‘MINES AND COLLIERIES. (Hansard, 14 July 1842)’, accessed 21 May 2021, http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1842/jul/14/mines-and-collieries#s3v0065p0_18420714_hol_51.
- 18.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, The Condition and Treatment of the Children Employed in the Mines and Colliers of the United Kingdom. Carefully Compiled from the Appendix to the First Report of the Commissioners … With Copious Extracts from the Evidence, and Illustrative Engravings. [The Preface Signed].
- 19.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 5.
- 20.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 5.
- 21.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 8.
- 22.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 9.
- 23.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 10.
- 24.
Water standing in contact with coal for some time might become acidic due to the presence of sulphur compounds as in acid mine drainage. This could explain Fanny Drake’s skinned and ‘scalded’ feet—chemical burns.
- 25.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 52.
- 26.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 52.
- 27.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 11.
- 28.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 38–42.
- 29.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 37, 38 and Preface, ‘Illustrative Engravings’.
- 30.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 43–47.
- 31.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 47, 51.
- 32.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 26–30.
- 33.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 74.
- 34.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 30.
- 35.
The term animal is used here and elsewhere in the chapter to denote nonhuman animal.
- 36.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, 74, 75.
- 37.
‘Coalmining Accidents and Deaths—Vanilla Circus—Maps, Poems and Searchable Databases for Mining in the UK’, accessed 27 August 2021, http://www.cmhrc.co.uk/site/disasters/index.html.
- 38.
Maria Vilain Rørvang, Birte L. Nielsen, and Andrew Neil McLean, ‘Sensory Abilities of Horses and Their Importance for Equitation Science’, Frontiers in Veterinary Science 0 (2020), https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00633.
- 39.
D. DeGrazia, ‘Sentience and Consciousness as Bases for Attributing Interests and Moral Status: Considering the Evidence and Speculating Slightly Beyond’, in L. Johnson, A. Fenton, and A. Shriver (eds.), Neuroethics and Nonhuman Animals (Cham: Springer, 2020), 17–31.
- 40.
Serenella d’Ingeo et al., ‘Horses Associate Individual Human Voices with the Valence of Past Interactions: A Behavioural and Electrophysiological Study’, Scientific Reports 9, no. 1 (9 August 2019): 11568, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47960-5.
- 41.
Mark S. Blumberg et al., ‘What Is REM Sleep?’, Current Biology 30, no. 1 (6 January 2020): R38–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.11.045; ‘The Dangers of Sleep Deprivation in Horses | International Society for Equitation Science’, accessed 12 August 2021, https://equitationscience.com/media/the-dangers-of-sleep-deprivation-in-horses; ‘Do Horses Dream?’, Of Horse, accessed 12 August 2021, https://www.ofhorse.com/view-post/Do-Horses-Dream.
- 42.
Discussion of this subject especially with reference to work by Christine Fuchs et al. in ‘The Dangers of Sleep Deprivation in Horses | International Society for Equitation Science’.
- 43.
‘Point of View: Understanding How Horses See the World’, Horse Sport, accessed 27 July 2021, https://horsesport.com/magazine/training/point-of-view-understanding-how-horses-see/; Christopher Murphy, ‘Equine Vision. Equine Vision: Normal and Abnormal. In: Equine Ophthalmology (Ed. Gilger BC), Elsevier Saunders, St. Louis, 2010:396-434’, 2010, 396–434.
- 44.
Patricia Evans, ‘Equine Vision and Its Effect on Behavior’, n.d., 3.
- 45.
Evans.
- 46.
Evans.
- 47.
Emily Donoho, ‘The Shetland Pony: All You Need to Know about This Small Hardy Breed’, Horse & Hound, 27 December 2018, https://www.horseandhound.co.uk/features/shetland-pony-facts-673878.
- 48.
Donoho.
- 49.
National Farmers Union, ‘The Fell Pony’, Countryside, 14 June 2018, https://www.countrysideonline.co.uk:443/hobbies-and-leisure/pets-and-animals/the-fell-pony43558/.
- 50.
Haig pit mining and colliery museum, ‘Pit Ponies (Haig)’, Haig Pit Mining And Colliery Museum., 7 May 2013, https://haigpit.wordpress.com/pit-ponies/.
- 51.
Commissioners for Inquiring into the Employment and Condition of Children in Mines and Manufactories, The Condition and Treatment of the Children Employed in the Mines and Colliers of the United Kingdom. Carefully Compiled from the Appendix to the First Report of the Commissioners … With Copious Extracts from the Evidence, and Illustrative Engravings. [The Preface Signed], 5.
- 52.
Steffan Rhys, ‘In Darkness for Years, the Dangerous and Harsh Life of Pit Ponies’, WalesOnline, 8 April 2008, https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/darkness-years-dangerous-harsh-life-2182018.
- 53.
Jacqueline Hernigle, ‘An Archipelago of Coal Pits: Predicting Archeological Features in the Richmond, Virginia Coalfield’ (College of William and Mary—Arts and Sciences, 1991), 60, http://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd/1539625657 drawing on work by Ashton and Sykes 1967.
- 54.
Estimates vary and this is an upper estimate.
- 55.
Margaret Evans, ‘Ghosts of the Coal Mines | Horse Journals’, Horse Journals, 5 July 2019, https://www.horsejournals.com/popular/history-heritage/ghosts-coal-mines.
- 56.
Evans James Watt, a Scottish engineer who by 1776 had developed an improved steam engine, wanted to compare this engine to the work of horses. He studied small horses in mines and on farms and horses in factories and mills. Eventually, he and his business partner calculated that a horse could produce 33,000 foot pounds of work per minute. This they called one horsepower and the unit was used to help sell the engine. Later a new unit for power would be devised, one where work of 1 newton metre every second = 1 watt of power.
- 57.
‘Ponies and Ostlers’, accessed 25 June 2021, http://www.healeyhero.co.uk/rescue/individual/Bob_Bradley/Ponies.html#top2.
- 58.
Robert Bradley, ‘Ponies and Ostlers’, Bob’s History of Mining, nd, http://www.healeyhero.co.uk/rescue/individual/Bob_Bradley/Ponies.html.
- 59.
Haig pit mining and colliery museum, ‘Pit Ponies (Haig)’, Haig Pit Mining and Colliery Museum., 7 May 2013, https://haigpit.wordpress.com/pit-ponies/.
- 60.
Ivor J Brown, ‘Horses in Shropshire Mines’, British Mining (Northern Mine Research Society), no. 39 (1989): 85.
- 61.
Brown, 85.
- 62.
‘Arthritis in Large Animals—Musculoskeletal System’, Veterinary Manual, accessed 11 May 2021, https://www.msdvetmanual.com/musculoskeletal-system/arthropathies-in-large-animals/arthritis-in-large-animals; ‘Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis—VetFolio’, accessed 17 August 2021, https://www.vetfolio.com/learn/article/pathophysiology-of-osteoarthritis.
- 63.
C. E. Broster et al., ‘The Range and Prevalence of Pathological Abnormalities Associated with Lameness in Working Horses from Developing Countries’, Equine Veterinary Journal 41, no. 5 (May 2009): 474, https://doi.org/10.2746/042516409X373907.
- 64.
Broster et al., 474, 475.
- 65.
Cajus G Diedrich, ‘Pathologic Historic Mining Horses from Central Europe’. 1, no. 1 (2017): 26.
- 66.
Kissing spine syndrome—vertebrae overlap due to bony projections.
- 67.
Articular surface lipping—curled edge at the bearing surface of a joint and related to osteoarthritis.
- 68.
Synostoses—the union or fusion of adjacent bones by the growth of bony substance.
- 69.
Diedrich, 8.
- 70.
‘WWMM—Pit Ponies 14/20’, accessed 17 June 2021, http://www.wwmm.org/storie/storia.asp?id_storia=192&pagina=14&project=0.
- 71.
‘The Causes and Prevention of Miners’ Nystagmus’, n.d., 10.
- 72.
Ronald S. Fishman, ‘Dark as a Dungeon: The Rise and Fall of Coal Miners’ Nystagmus’, Archives of Ophthalmology 124, no. 11 (1 November 2006): 1637, https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.124.11.1637.
- 73.
Cogan 1956 p. 192 cited in Fishman, 1637.
- 74.
Tilman Grune et al., ‘β-Carotene Is an Important Vitamin A Source for Humans123’, The Journal of Nutrition 140, no. 12 (December 2010): 2268S–2285S, https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.119024.
- 75.
‘Nutritional Diseases of Horses and Other Equids—Management and Nutrition—Veterinary Manual’, accessed 17 June 2021, https://www.msdvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/nutrition-horses/nutritional-diseases-of-horses-and-other-equids.
- 76.
R.D. Semba, The Vitamin A Story: Lifting the Shadow of Death, vol. 104, World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics (S. Karger AG, 2012), https://doi.org/10.1159/isbn.978-3-318-02189-9. For soldiers in the American Civil War the risk of vitamin A deficiency may have depended upon rank and to some extent race. The higher the rank the better the diet and the better the salary which could be used to supplement a soldier’s diet.
- 77.
Richard D Semba, ‘On the “discovery” of Vitamin A’, Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 61, no. 3 (2012): 192–98, https://doi.org/10.1159/000343124.
- 78.
‘Nutritional Diseases of Horses and Other Equids—Management and Nutrition—Veterinary Manual’, accessed 17 June 2021, https://www.msdvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/nutrition-horses/nutritional-diseases-of-horses-and-other-equids.
- 79.
A Text-Book of Coal-Mining by Herbert W Hughes—1893 cited in ‘Haulage by Horses’, accessed 29 April 2021, http://www.healeyhero.co.uk/rescue/individual/Phil_Wyles/Ponies.html.
- 80.
‘HARD CORN | Definition of HARD CORN by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.Com Also Meaning of HARD CORN’, accessed 2 August 2021, https://www.lexico.com/definition/hard_corn; ‘Haulage by Horses’.
- 81.
Tom Wolfe, ‘Stalking the Billion-Footed Beast’, Harper’s Magazine, 1 November 1989, https://harpers.org/archive/1989/11/stalking-the-billion-footed-beast/.
- 82.
‘Meyer—Augenerkrankungenund Erblindungbei Grubenpferden-.Pdf’, n.d.
- 83.
H Meyer, ‘Augenerkrankungenund Erblindungbei Grubenpferden- eine retrospektiveAnalyse’, February 1999, 38–40.
- 84.
Meyer, 39.
- 85.
Erin Ann Thomas, Coal in Our Veins: A Personal Journey (Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 2012), 49.
- 86.
Thomas, 49.
- 87.
Thomas, 51.
- 88.
‘PIT PONIES. (Hansard, 28 March 1928)’, accessed 6 June 2021, https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1928/mar/28/pit-ponies.
- 89.
‘PIT PONIES. (Hansard, 28 March 1928)’.
- 90.
‘PIT PONIES. (Hansard, 28 March 1928)’.
- 91.
‘PIT PONIES. (Hansard, 28 March 1928)’.
- 92.
‘Orders of the Day—Pit Ponies (Conditions)’, TheyWorkForYou, accessed 29 April 2021, https://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=1948-10-27a.220.2.
- 93.
‘Orders of the Day—Pit Ponies (Conditions)’.
- 94.
‘Orders of the Day—Pit Ponies (Conditions)’.
- 95.
‘Orders of the Day—Pit Ponies (Conditions)’.
- 96.
Bertie Coombes L, These Poor Hands. The Autobiography of a Miner Working in South Wales (Cardiff, UK: University of Wales Press, 2002).
- 97.
Coombes.
- 98.
Evans, ‘Ghosts of the Coal Mines | Horse Journals’.
- 99.
‘Pit Ponies—Stories from the Warwickshire Coalfield’, Our Warwickshire (blog), accessed 25 October 2021, https://www.ourwarwickshire.org.uk/content/article/pit-ponies-stories-from-the-warwickshire-coalfield.
- 100.
‘Pit Ponies—Stories from the Warwickshire Coalfield’.
- 101.
S. Scott Alison cited in David M. Turner and Daniel Blackie, Disability in the Industrial Revolution (Manchester University Press, 2018), 58, https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526125774.
- 102.
Turner and Blackie, 57.
- 103.
Turner and Blackie, 58.
- 104.
Turner and Blackie, Disability in the Industrial Revolution.
- 105.
G Mallet cited in Turner and Blackie, 58.
- 106.
Turner and Blackie, 58.
- 107.
Joanna Bourke, ‘The History of Pain Is Racist, Sexist, and Classist’, The New Republic, 20 June 2014, https://newrepublic.com/article/118283/cultural-history-pain.
- 108.
They might also be more stoic in bearing such pain.
- 109.
Almost all slave ponies were male.
- 110.
Sea voyages were extremely stressful and dangerous.
- 111.
Emile Zola, Germinal (London: J. M. DENT & SONS LTD., 1885), chap. V, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/56528/56528-h/56528-h.htm.
- 112.
Crime here as in the older meaning of the word, not tied to a legal prescript, as in an act of great wickedness.
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Mitchell, L. (2024). Stolen Children of the Endless Night: A Critical Account of the Lives of British Pit Ponies. In: Glover, M.J., Mitchell, L. (eds) Animals as Experiencing Entities. The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46456-0_11
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