Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Leaning in: A Historical Perspective on Influencing Women’s Leadership

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The term “lean in” was popularized by Sheryl Sandberg, Facebook COO, via her #1 Best Seller encouraging women to defy their fears and dare to be leaders in their fields. She received criticism because although admitting to external barriers contributing to the gender gap in leadership, the scope of her book focused on the internal shortcomings of women. She asserted that women are hindered by barriers that exist within themselves, and provided practical tips, backed by research, to equip women with strategies to proactively progress in the workplace instead of shying away. Sandberg is not the first to raise concern about gender inequality. Other women in history like Susan B. Anthony and Maggie Lena Walker also challenged lopsided gender roles through their words and actions. Using the critical biography methodology, this paper explores these women’s experiences, philosophies and contributions, reflects on Sandberg’s insight, and develops a framework, based on the theory of planned behavior as well as the ethical principles of utilitarianism and corporate social responsibility, that links internal factors (e.g., self-efficacy, leadership ambition etc.), organizational external factors (e.g., culture, support etc.), and societal external factors (e.g., societal expectations, public policy etc.) to intentions to lean in and leaning in behavior. Thus, via critical biography, this paper examines both internal and external factors, showing how they are linked, and how they may impact leaning in intentions and behavior. The paper also discusses how leaning in may influence both individual and gender mobility for women, and ultimately, increased gender equality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acker, J. (2006). Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gender and Society, 20(4), 441–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human DecisionProcesses, 50(2), 179–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(4), 665–683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Argandoña, A., & von Weltzien Hoivik, H. (2009). Corporate social responsibility: One size does not fit all. Collecting evidence from Europe. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(3), 221–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, C. J., & Christian, J. (2004). From attitudes to behavior: Basic and applied researchon the theory of planned behavior. In C. J. Armitage & J. Christian (Eds.), Planned behavior: The relationship between human thought and action (pp. 1–12). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Attig, N., & Brockman, P. (2017). The local roots of corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 142(3), 479–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J. H. (2005). Sisters: The lives of America’s suffragists. New York, NY: Hill and Wang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baradaran, M. (2017). The color of money: Black banks and the racial wealth gap. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bentley, A. F. (1908). The process of government: A study of social pressures. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulouta, I. (2013). Hidden connections: The link between board gender diversity and corporate social performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 113(2), 185–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, H. R. (2013). Social responsibilities of the businessman. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. B. (1989). Womanist consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 14(3), 610–633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalyst. (2001). Report: Women of color executives: Their voices, their journeys. Retrieved from https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-of-color-executives-their-voices-their-journeys/.

  • Catalyst. (2008). Report: Women of color in U.S. securities firms—women of color in professional services series. Retrieved from https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-of-color-in-u-s-securities-firms-women-of-color-in-professional-services-series/.

  • Catalyst. (2015). Infographic: The diversity dividend: Women of color. Retrieved from https://www.catalyst.org/research/infographic-the-diversity-dividend-women-of-color/.

  • Catalyst. (2017). Women CEOs of the S&P 500. Retrieved from https://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-ceos-sp-500.

  • Catalyst. (2018). Quick take: Women in the workforce—Global. Retrieved from https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-the-workforce-global/.

  • Cheyney, A. B. (1998). People of purpose: 80 people who have made a difference. Parsippany, NJ: Good Year Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., & Glass, C. (2015). Diversity begets diversity? The effects of board composition on the appointment and success of women CEOs. Social Science Research, 53, 137–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dezso, C. L., & Ross, D. G. (2012). Does female representation in top management improve firm performance? A panel data investigation. Strategic Management Journal, 33(9), 1072–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, E. C. (1987). Outgrowing the compact of the fathers: Equal rights, woman suffrage, and the United States constitution, 1820–1878. The Journal of American History, 74(3), 836–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenstadt, P. R. (Ed.). (2005). The encyclopedia of New York state. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenstein, Z. (2013). “Leaning in” in Iraq: Women’s rights and war? Aljazeera. Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/2013323141149557391.html.

  • Elkington, J. (1998). Cannibals with forks: The triple bottom line of 21st century business. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, C. T. (2014). The struggle for equal adulthood: Gender, race, age, and the fight for citizenship in Antebellum America. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzsimmons, T. W., Callan, V. J., & Paulsen, N. (2014). Gender disparity in the C-suite: Domale and female CEOs differ in how they reached the top? The Leadership Quarterly, 25(2), 245–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry, L. W., & Slocum, J. W. (2008). Maximizing the triple bottom line through spiritual Leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 37(1), 86–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, J. W., Chen, W., Henry, E., Humphreys, J., & Lian, Y. (2013). Examining the work of Mary Parker Follett through the lens of critical biography. Journal of Management History, 19(4), 441–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grosser, K. (2009). Corporate social responsibility and gender equality: Women as stakeholders and the European Union sustainability strategy. Business Ethics: A European Review, 18(3), 290–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, I. H. (1898). The life and work of Susan B. Anthony (Vol. 1–2). Indianapolis, IN: Bowen-Merrill Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, I. H. (1908). The life and work of Susan B. Anthony (Vol. 3). Indianapolis, IN: The Hollenbeck Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heald, M. (1970). The social responsibilities of business: Company and community, 1900–1960. Cleveland, OH: The Press of Case Western Reserve University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helfat, C. E., Harris, D., & Wolfson, P. J. (2006). The pipeline to the top: Women and men in the top executive ranks of U.S. corporations. Academy of Management Perspectives, 20(4), 42–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Higginbotham, E., & Weber, L. (1992). Moving up with kin and community: Upward socialmobility for black and white women. Gender and Society, 6(3), 416–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holli, A. M., Magnusson, E., & Rönnblom, M. (2005). Critical studies of Nordic discourses ongender and gender equality. NORA: Nordic Journal of Women’s Studies, 13(3), 148–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, G. (2009). Measuring organizational performance: Beyond the triple bottom line. Business Strategy and the Environment, 18(3), 177–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim, N. A., Howard, D. P., & Angelidis, J. P. (2003). Board members in the service industry: An empirical examination of the relationship between corporate social responsibility orientation and directorial type. Journal of Business Ethics, 47(4), 393–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingham, J. N., & Feldman, L. B. (1994). African-American business leaders: A biographical dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, K. T. (Ed.). (2010). The encyclopedia of New York city (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, D. (2007). Critical biography and management education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 6(1), 104–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan, H. A., & Park, D. (2005). A few good women—on top management teams. Journal of Business Research, 58(12), 1712–1720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeanIn.Org, & McKinsey & Company. (2019). Women in the workplace. Retrieved from https://wiw-report.s3.amazonaws.com/Women_in_the_Workplace_2019.pdf.

  • Manner, M. H. (2010). The impact of CEO characteristics on corporate social performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(1), 53–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, G. W. (2003). A right worthy grand mission: Maggie Lena Walker and the quest for black economic empowerment. Washington, DC: Howard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, J. C. (2008). The leadership handbook: 26 critical lessons every leader needs. Nashville, TN: Nelson Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinsey Global Institute. (2015). How advancing women’s equality can add $12 trillion to global growth. Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/featuredinsights/employment-and-growth/how-advancing-womens-equality-can-add-12-trillion-to-global-growth.

  • Mill, J. S. (1863). Utilitarianism. London, UK: Parker, Son, and Bourn.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monserrat, S. I., & Simmers, C. A. (2019). Carolyn R. Dexter’s legacies: A broader perspective on faculty work productivity and impact. Journal of Management History, 25(1), 9–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nate, Z. (2012). Questioning the unquestionable: Wake up call for change. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niven, D. (2006). Throwing your hat out of the ring: Negative recruitment and the gender imbalance in state legislative candidacy. Politics and Gender, 2(4), 473–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman, W., & MacDonald, C. (2004). Getting to the bottom of “Triple Bottom Line”. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14(2), 243–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peni, E. (2014). CEO and chairperson characteristics and firm performance. Journal of Management and Governance, 18(1), 185–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2017). On gender differences, no consensus on nature vs. nurture. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/simon/Downloads/Gender-report-December-2017-FINAL.pdf.

  • Post, C., & Byron, K. (2015). Women on boards and firm financial performance: A meta-analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 58(5), 1546–1571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ransom, C. (2009). Maggie L. Walker: Pioneering banker and community leader. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reguera-Alvarado, N., de Fuentes, P., & Laffarga, J. (2017). Does board gender diversity influence financial performance? Evidence from Spain. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(2), 337–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds-Dobbs, W., Thomas, K. M., & Harrison, M. S. (2008). From mammy to superwoman: Images that hinder black women’s career development. Journal of Career Development, 35(2), 129–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rottenberg, C. (2013). Hijacking feminism. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/201332510121757700.html.

  • Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in: Women, work, and the will to lead. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiele, J. H., Jackson, M. S., & Fairfax, C. N. (2005). Maggie Lena Walker and African-American community development. Affilia, 20(1), 21–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, S. (2017). Why are there so few female leaders in higher education: A case of structure or agency? Management in Education, 31(2), 82–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Si, H., Shi, J., Tang, D., Wen, S., Miao, W., & Duan, K. (2019). Application of the theory of planned behavior in environmental science: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(15), 2788–2814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stainback, K., Kleiner, S., & Skaggs, S. (2016). Women in power: Undoing or redoing the gendered organization. Gender and Society, 30(1), 109–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, E. C. (1922). Elizabeth Cady Stanton as revealed in her letters, diary, and Reminiscences. In T. Stanton & H. S. Blatch (Eds.) (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.

  • Stanton, E. C., Anthony, S. B., Gage, M. J., & Harper, I. H. (1922). History of Woman Suffrage: 1900–1920. New York, NY: National American Woman Suffrage Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suggs, C. J. (2000). Maggie Lena Walker. Negro History Bulletin, 63(1–4), 39–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terjesen, S., Sealy, R., & Singh, V. (2009). Women directors on corporate boards: A review and research agenda. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 17(3), 320–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, K. H., & Greene, R. R. (2009). Role theory and social work practice. In R. R. Green & N. Kropf (Eds.), Human behavior theory: A diversity framework (pp. 101–122). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Development Programme. (2016). Africa human development report 2016. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/hdr/2016-africa-human-development-report.html.

  • U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2018). Job patterns for minorities and women in private industry. Retrieved from https://www1.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/employment/jobpat-eeo1/.

  • Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school drop out. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(5), 1161–1176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Dijk, H., van Engen, M., & Paauwe, J. (2012). Reframing the business case for diversity: A values and virtues perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 111(1), 73–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, M. L. (1912). Women in business [Address to the Virginia Federation]. Richmond, VA: Maggie L. Walker Papers, Maggie Walker Historic Site.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, A. M., & Forker, J. (2017). Financial management effectiveness and board gender diversity in member-governed, community financial institutions. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(2), 351–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D. J. (1991). Corporate social performance revisited. Academy of Management Review, 16(4), 691–718.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2001). Engendering development through gender equality in rights, resources, and voice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, E. O., Baxter, J., & Birkelund, G. E. (1995). The gender gap in workplace authority: A cross-national study. American Sociological Review, 60(3), 407–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Business, Middle Georgia State University, 100 University Parkway, Macon, GA, 31206, USA

    Simone T. A. Phipps

  2. Cambridge Centre for Social Innovation, Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

    Simone T. A. Phipps & Leon C. Prieto

  3. College of Business, Clayton State University, 2000 Clayton State Boulevard, Morrow, GA, 30260, USA

    Leon C. Prieto

Authors
  1. Simone T. A. Phipps
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leon C. Prieto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Simone T. A. Phipps.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

No Conflict of Interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Phipps, S.T.A., Prieto, L.C. Leaning in: A Historical Perspective on Influencing Women’s Leadership. J Bus Ethics 173, 245–259 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04566-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04566-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation