Abstract
The restructured globalized economy has provided women with employment opportunities. Globalisation has also meant a shift towards self-regulation of multinationals as part of the restructuring of the world economy that increases among others things, flexible employment practices, worsening of labour conditions and lower wages for many women workers around the world. In this context, as part of the global trend emphasising Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in the 1980s, one important development has been the growth of voluntary Corporate Codes of Conduct to improve labour conditions. This article reviews from a feminist interdisciplinary perspective the broad academic literature on women workers, covering the more classical debate on women workers in the industrialization process and entering into women workers in the global supply chains and women workers and corporate codes of conduct. The main argument is that this research on women workers is crucial to frame the issues of business ethics and in particular CSR and Codes of Conduct in the context of women in the global political economy. When this crucial knowledge is ignored, then the ethical policies of the companies also ignore the real situation of the women workers at the bottom of their supply chains.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ASEPROLA: 1998, ‹Actualidad Laboral Centroamericana’, Newsletter (16), July (ASEPROLA, San Jose)
Auret, D. 2002, Participatory Social Auditing of Labour Standards: A Handbook for Code of Practice Implementers (Agricultural Ethical Assurance Association of Zimbabwe, Harare)
Auret, D. and S. Barrientos: 2004, ‹Participatory Social Auditing: a Practical Guide to Developing a Gender-Sensitive Approach’, IDS Working Paper (237)
Balakrhisnan R. 2002, The Hidden Assembly Line: Gender Dynamics of Subcontracted Work in a Global Economy. Kumarian Press, Bloomfield
Bandy J., J. Bickham Mendez 2003, A Place of Their Own? Women Organizers Negotiating National and Transnational Civil Society in the Maquilas of Nicaragua and Mexico Mobilization, 8(2), 173–188
Barrientos S. 1997, The Hidden Ingredient: Female Labour in Chilean Fruit Exports Bulletin Latin America Research, 1(1), 71–81
Barrientos, S.: 2003, ‹Labour Impact Assessment: Challenges and Opportunities of a Learning Approach’, Paper presented in EDIAIS Conference, November 2003, University of Manchester
Barrientos S., A. Bee, A. Matear, I. Vogel 1999a, Women and Agribusiness - Working Miracles in the Chilean Fruit Export Sector Macmillan and St. Martin’s Press, New York
Barrientos S., S. McClenaghan, L. Orton 1999b, Gender and Codes of Conduct: A Case Study from Horticulture in South Africa. London: Christian Aid
Barrientos, S., C. Dolan and A. Tallontire: 2001, ‹Gender and Ethical Trade: A Mapping of the Issues in African Horticulture’, available at: www.nri.org/nret/nret.htm
Barrientos S., C. Dolan, A. Tallontire 2003, A Gendered Value Chain Approach to Codes of Conduct in African Horticulture, World Development 31(9), 1511–1526
Bellman M. J. 2004, Rationality and Identity in the Participation Choices of Female Maquila Workers, Comparative Political Studies 37(5), 563–589
Bendell, J.: 2001, Towards Participatory Workplace Appraisal: Report from a Focus Group of Women Banana Workers, September 2001 (New Academy of Business, Bristol)
Bickham Mendez J. 2005, From the Revolution to the Maquiladoras: Gender, Labour and Globalization in Nicaragua. Duke University Press, Durham and London
Bickham Mendez, J. and R. Köpke: 1998, ‹Opposing Globalization: Women Workers’ Movements and Hemispheric Competition and Cooperation in the Apparel Industry’, mimeo
Bickham Mendez J., R. Köpke 2001, Mujeres y Maquila. Respuestas a la Globalización: Organizaciones de Mujeres Centroamericanas en medio de la Competencia y Cooperación Transnacional en la Industria Maquilera. Ediciones Heinrich Böll, San Salvador
Blowfield M., J. G. Frynas 2005, Setting New Agendas: Critical Perspectives on Corporate Social Responsibility in the Developing World. International Affairs, 81(3) 499–513
Bonacich E., R. P. Appelbaum 2000, Behind the Label: Inequality in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry. University of California Press, Berkeley
Brill L. 2002, Can Codes of Conduct Help Home-Based Workers? In R. Jenkins, R. Pearson, G. Seyfang (eds.), Corporate Responsibility & Labour Rights: Codes of Conduct in the Global Economy Earthscan, London
CAWN and WWW: 1999, ‹Women Workers and Codes of Conduct: Central American Workshop Report’, Workshop Managua, Nicaragua 3–5 May (London, CAWN)
Center for Women’s Resources: 2003, ‹The Life and Struggle of Women Workers Under Contractualization’, Asia-Pacific Research Network Journal 8, June 2003
Christian Aid 2004, Behind the Mask. The Real Face of Corporate Social Responsibility Christian Aid, London
Collins J. 2003, Gender, Labour and Power in the Global Apparel Industry. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
COSILBA: 2001, Diagnostico Participativo con Enfoque de Género sobre Condiciones Sociales, Económicas, Laborales y Organizativas de las Mujeres Trabajadoras Bananeras, de Centroamerica, Cordinadora de La Mujer, available at http://www.colsiba.org/textos/Diagn%20mujeres%20bananeras%20CA%202001.pdf
Elias J. 2003, International Labour Standards, Codes of Conduct and Gender Issues: A Review of Recent Debates and Controversies. Non-State Actors and International Law 3(2 & 3), 283–301
Elson D., R. Pearson 1981, “Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers”: an Analysis of Women’s Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing. Feminist Review 7(Spring), 87–107
Elson, D. and R. Pearson: 1997, ‹The Subordination of Women and the Internationalization of Factory Production’, in N. Visvanathan, L. Duggan, L. Nisonoff and N. Wiegersma (eds.), The Women, Gender and Development Reader (Zed Books, London)
Enloe C. 1996, Margins, Silences and Bottom Rungs: How to Overcome the Underestimation of Power in the Study of International Politics, In S. Smith, K. Booth, M. Zalewski (eds.), International Theory: Positivism and Beyond Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Fernández-Kelly P. 1997, Maquiladoras: The View from the Inside In N. Visvanathan, L. Duggan, L. Nisonoff, N. Wiegersma (eds.), The Women, Gender and Development Reader Zed Books, London
Flores, M. and M. Kennedy: 1996, Trabajadoras de las Maquilas en Villanueva: Mujeres Jóvenes, Familia y Vida Cotidiana, Tegucigalpa: CEM-H, mimeo
Frank D. 2005, Bananeras: Women Transforming the Banana Unions of Latin America. South End Press, Cambridge, MA
Gereffi G. 1994, The Organization of Buyer-Driven Global Commodity Chains: How U.S. Retailers Shape Overseas Production Networks In Gereffi, G., M. Korzeniewicz (eds.), Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism Greewood Press, Westport
Hale, A.: 1996, ‹The Deregulated Global Economy: Women Workers and Strategies of Resistance’, Focus on Gender 4(3)
Hale A., M. Opondo 2005, Humanising the Cut Flower Chain: Confronting the Realities of Flower Production for Workers in Kenya, Antipode 37(2), 301–323
Hale A., L. M. Shaw 2001, Women Workers and the Promise of Ethical Trade in the Globalised Garment Industry. Antipode 33(3), 510–530
Hale A., J. Wills (eds.) 2005, Threads of Labour. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford
Harrington C. 2004, ‹Marriage’ to Capital: the Fallback Positions of Fiji’s Women Garment Workers, Development in Practice, 14(4), 495–507
Hensmann R. 2005, Defending Workers’ Rights in Subcontrated Workplaces In A. Hale, J. Wills (eds.) Threads of Labour Blackwell Publishing, Oxford
Hooper C. 2000, Manly States: Masculinities, International Relations, and Gender Politics. Columbia University Press, New York
Jenkins R., R. Pearson, G. Seyfang (eds.) 2002, Corporate Responsibility and Labour Rights: Codes of Conduct in the Global Economy. Earthscan, London
Kabeer N. 1999, Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment. Development and Change 30(3), 435–464
Kabeer N., S. Mahmud 2004, Globalization, Gender and Poverty: Bangladeshi Women Workers in Export and Local Markets, Journal of International Development 16, 93–109
Kanji N. 2004, Corporate Responsibility and Women’s Employment: The Cashew Nut Case. IEED, London
Kaplinsky, R. and M. Morris: 2001, A Manual for Value Chain Research, IDRC and IDS, available at: http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/global/man&hand.html
Kennedy, M. and M. Cardoza: 1995, Mujeres en la Maquila: El Caso de la ZIP Choloma (Centro de Estudios de la Mujer, San Pedro Sula, Honduras)
Lim L. Y. C. 1990, Women’s Work in Export Factories: the Politics of a Cause. In I. Tinker (ed.) Persistent Inequalities. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Lipschutz R. 2004, “Sweating it out: NGO Campaigns and Trade Union Empowerment”. Development in Practice 14(1&2), 197–209
MEC 2000, Diagnòstico Sobre las Condiciones Socio Laborales de las Empresas de la Zonas Francas. Maria Elena Cuadra, Managua
MEC 2002, Diagnóstico: Radiografía de las Condiciones Laborales en las que Trabajan las Mujeres en la Maquila. Maria Elena Cuadra, Managua
Mies M. 1993, Towards a Methodology for Feminist Research. In M. Hammersley (ed) Social Research: Philosophy, Politics and Practice. Sage, London
Ong A. 1987, Spirits of Resistance and Capital Discipline: Factory Women in Malaysia. Suny Press, Albany
Pearson R. 1998, Nimble Fingers Revisited - Reflections on Women and Third World Industrialisation in the Late Twentieth Century In C. Jackson, R. Pearson (eds.), Feminist Visions of Development Routledge, London
Pearson, R.: 2003, ‘Feminist Responses to Economic Globalisation: Some Examples of Past and Future Practice’, in J. Kerr and C. Sweetman (eds.), Women Reinventing Globalisation (Oxfam, Oxford).
Pearson, R. and G. Seyfang: 2001, ‹New Hope or False Dawn? Voluntary Codes of Conduct, Labour Regulation and Social Policy in a Globalizing World’, Global Social Policy 1(1), 49–78.
Pearson R., G. Seyfang 2002, I’ll Tell you What I Want: Women Workers and Codes of Conduct In R. Jenkins, R. Pearson, G. Seyfang (eds.), Corporate Responsibility and Labour Rights: Codes of Conduct in the Global Economy Earthscan, London
Prieto M., J. Bendell 2002, If you Want to Help us then Start Listening to us! From Factories and Plantations Women Speak out About Corporate Responsibility. New Academy of Business, Bristol
Prieto M., C. Quinteros 2004, Never the Twain Shall Meet? Women’s Organisations and Trade Unions in the Maquila Industry in Central America. Development in Practice 14(1&2), 149–157
Prieto M., A. Hadjipateras, J. Turner 2002, The Potential of Codes as Part of Women’s Organisations’ Strategies for Promoting the Rights of Women Workers: A Central America Perspective In R. Jenkins, R. Pearson, G. Seyfang (eds.), Corporate Responsibility and Labour Rights: Codes of Conduct in the Global Economy Earthscan, London
Prieto, M., C. Seeley and D. F. Murphy: 2004, ‹Supply Chain Codes of Conduct and Fair Trade Initiatives: Winning New Markets While Promoting Gender Equality’, in A. Tran-Nguyen and A. B. Zampetti, (eds.), Trade and Gender: Opportunities and Challenges for Developing Countries (UNCTAD, United Nations, New York and Geneva)
Prieto-Carrón M. 2004, Is There Anyone Listening? Women Workers in Factories in Central America, and Corporate Codes of Conduct. Development 47, 101–105
Prieto-Carrón M. 2006, Corporate Social Responsibility in Latin America: Chiquita, Women Banana Workers and Structural Inequalities. Journal of Corporate Citizenship 21(Spring), 85–94
Prieto-Carrón, M.: 2006, unpublished, Gender Power and Corporate Social Responsibility: Central American Women Workers and Codes of Conduct, Thesis, University of Bristol
Pyle J. L., K. B. Ward 2003, Recasting Our Understanding of Gender and Work During Global Restructuring. International Sociology 18(3), 461–489
Quinteros, C.: 2005, Are we Dreaming Too Much? Corporate Social Responsibility as a Response to 2005 (GMIES, San Salvador)
Raworth K. 2004, Trading Away Our Rights: Women Working in Global Supply Chains. Oxfam International, Oxford
Rosa K. 1994, The Conditions and Organisational Activities of Women in Free Frade Zones–Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, 1970–1990. In S. Rowbotham, & S. Mitter (eds.), Dignity and Daily Bread, Routledge, London
Salzinger L. 1997, From High Heels to Swathed Bodies: Gendered Meanings Under Production in Mexico’s Export-Processing Industry. Feminist Studies 23(3), 549–574
Segerstrom, P.: 2003, Naomi Klein and the Anti-Globalization Movement: How Should Economists be Responding to the Arguments Made by Anti-globalisation Activists? (Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR), London)
Seyfang, G.: 1999, ‹Private Sector Self-Regulation for Social Responsibility: Mapping Codes of Conduct’, Working Paper 1 (University of East Anglia, Norwich)
Smith, S., D. Auret, S. Barrientos, C. Dolan, K. Kleinbooi, C. Njobvu, M. Opondo and A. Tallontire: 2004, ‹Ethical Trade in African Horticulture: Gender, Rights and Participation’, IDS Working Paper, no 223 (IDS, Brighton)
Tiano S. 1990, Maquiladora Women: A New Category of Workers? In Ward K. (ed.) Women Workers and Global Restructuring Cornell University, Ithaca
Tinoco, G. Y. and E. Tinoco: 2001, ‹La Maquila de Vestuario Domiciliar en Nicaragua’, OIT (Organización International del Trabajo)
Traub-Werner M. and A. J. Cravey: 2002, ‹Spatiality, Sweatshops and Solidarity in Guatemala’, Social & Cultural Geography 3(4), 383–401
Ver Beek, K. A.: 2001, ‹Maquiladoras: Exploitation or Emancipation? An Overview of the Situation of Maquiladora Workers in Honduras’, World Development 29(9), 1553–1567
Ward K. (ed.) 1990, Women Workers and Global Restructuring. Cornell University, Ithaca
Wilson T. D. 2003, Forms of Male Domination and Female Subordination: Homeworkers Versus Maquiladora, Review of Radical Political Economics, 35, 56–72
WWW: 1999, Women Workers and Codes of Conduct: Asia Workshop Report (WWW, Manchester)
WWW: 2002, Company Codes of Conduct and Workers Rights: Report of an Education and Consultation Programme with Garment Workers in Asia (WWW, Manchester)
WWW: 2003, Garment Industry Subcontracting and Workers’ Rights – Report of Women Working Worldwide Action Research in Asia and Europe (WWW, Manchester)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This article is based on my PhD on Nicaraguan women workers in factories (maquilas) and banana plantations and corporate codes of conduct (Prieto, 2006, unpublished).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Prieto-Carrón, M. Women Workers, Industrialization, Global Supply Chains and Corporate Codes of Conduct. J Bus Ethics 83, 5–17 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9650-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9650-7