Abstract
Businesses and governments in postcolonial countries frame investments in wind energy as efforts to address climate change and sustainable development. However, when wind energy projects encroach on indigenous peoples’ lives and land, there is often a lack of recognition and participation of these peoples and an unequal distribution of cost and benefits of such projects toward them, which leads to opposition against wind energy projects and often triggers conflicts for justice. Worryingly, such conditions have repeatedly resulted in the assassination of human rights defenders, which further inflames the conflict. Herein, I discuss these concepts based on a longitudinal study centered on a wind energy project in Oaxaca, Mexico, with the aim of exploring and understanding the conditions under which wind energy investments fail to respect current laws and norms, as well as the consequences of such negligence. My in-depth analysis of the actions of the government, businesses, and indigenous peoples revealed a phenomenon that is less discussed in environmental (in)justice research: the gradual and continuous transformation of indigenous peoples’ norms and behaviors away from their traditional economic and cultural livelihoods. This phenomenon helps to extend the conceptual understanding of environmental (in)justice with regard to social turbulence, which is defined as the unpredictable behavior of political and social systems in contexts in which existing laws, regulations, and norms regarding environmental justice are not observed. The concept of social turbulence of environmental (in)justice helps to explain how indigenous peoples sacrifice their territories, norms, and traditions to a technical solution to climate change and sustainable development.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Altamirano-Jiménez, I. (2017). “The sea is our bread”: Interrupting green neoliberalism in Mexico. Marine Policy, 80, 28–34.
Asociación Mexicana de Energía Eólica, AMDEE [Mexican Wind Energy Association]. (2019). Mapas Eólicos [Wind maps]. Retrieved March 6, 2019, from https://www.amdee.org/mapas-eolicos.
Avila, S. (2018). Environmental justice and the expanding geography of wind power conflicts. Sustainability Science, 13(3), 599–616.
Avila-Calero, S. (2017). Contesting energy transitions: Wind power and conflicts in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Journal of Political Ecology, 24(1), 992–1012.
Blog SIPAZ. (2013). Oaxaca: Fallece Por Heridas de Bala Opositor a Proyecto Eólico de la Multinacional Gas Natural Fenosa. Retrieved December 22, 2017, from https://sipaz.wordpress.com/2013/08/06/oaxaca-fallece-por-heridas-de-bala-opositor-a-proyecto-eolico-de-la-multinacional-gas-natural-fenosa/.
Business and Human Rights Resource Centre. (2018). México: Suprema Corte Niega Amparo a Comunidades y da Luz Verde a Proyecto de Eólica del Sur [Mexico: Supreme Court denies protection to communities and gives green light to Eólica del Sur Project]. Retrieved March 3, 2019, https://www.business-humanrights.org/es/méxico-suprema-corte-niega-amparo-a-comunidades-y-da-luz-verde-a-proyecto-de-eólica-del-sur.
Calvano, L. (2008). Multinational corporations and local communities: A critical analysis of conflict. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(4), 793–805.
Cámara de Diputados and Congreso de la Unión. (2011). Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Retrieved November 11, 2011, from http://transparencia.uaz.edu.mx/documents/70010/ea9cb1cb-4cde-4c60-a50c-e2d9ee4bb29b.
Campbell, H., Binford, L., Bartolomé, M., & Barabas, A. (1993). Zapotec struggles—Histories, politics, and representations from Juchitán, Oaxaca. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Campbell, H., & Green, S. (1996). A history of representations of Isthmus Zapotec women. Identities, 3(1–2), 155–182.
Del Bene, D., Scheidel, A., & Temper, L. (2018). More dams, more violence? A global analysis on resistances and repression around conflictive dams through co-produced knowledge. Sustainability Science, 13(3), 617–633.
del Razo, C. (2016). A snapshot of the Mexican clean energy obligations system. Mexican Law Review, 9(1), 81–90.
DR. (2019, 28 February). Radio program orientering. P1, Denmark. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from www.dr.dk/orientering.
Dunlap, A. (2017a). A bureaucratic trap: Free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) and wind energy development in Juchitán, Mexico. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 29(4), 1–21.
Dunlap, A. (2017b). Wind energy: Toward a “sustainable violence” in Oaxaca. NACLA Report on the Americas, 49(4), 483–488.
Dunlap, A. (2018a). Insurrection for land, sea and dignity: Resistance and autonomy against wind energy in Álvaro Obregón, Mexico. Journal of Political Ecology, 25(1), 120–143.
Dunlap, A. (2018b). The ‘solution’ is now the ‘problem’: Wind energy, colonisation and the ‘genocide-ecocide nexus’ in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. The International Journal of Human Rights, 22(4), 550–573.
Dunlap, A. (2018c). Counterinsurgency for wind energy: The Bíi Hioxo Wind Park in Juchitán, Mexico. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 45(3), 630–652.
Dunlap, A., & Fairhead, J. (2014). The militarisation and marketisation of nature: An alternative lens to ‘climate-conflict’. Geopolitics, 19(4), 937–961.
Elliott, D. L., Schwartz, M., Scott, G., Haymes, S., Heimiller, D., & George, R. (2004). Atlas de recursos eólicos del estado de Oaxaca [The Spanish version of wind energy resource atlas of Oaxaca]. Oak Ridge, CA: Laboratorio Nacional de Energía Renovable.
Environmental Justice/Environmental Racism. (1991). First national people of color environmental leadership. 17 Principles of environmental justice. Washington, DC: Environmental Justice/Environmental Racism. Retrieved October 20, 2013, from https://www.ejnet.org/ej/principles.pdf.
Escobar, A. (1996). Construction nature: Elements for a post-structuralist political ecology. Futures, 28(4), 325–343.
FEMSA. (2011). FEMSA y MMIF Adquieren Proyecto de Energía Eólica de 396 Megawatts. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from http://www.femsa.com/es/medios/femsa-y-mmif-adquieren-proyecto-de-energia-eolica-de-396-megawatts/.
FEMSA. (2017). Coca-Cola. FEMSA. Retrieved December 20, 2017, from https://www.coca-colafemsa.com/index.html.
Gellert, P. K., & Lynch, B. D. (2003). Mega-projects as displacements. International Social Science Journal, 55(175), 15–25.
Gobierno Federal. (2012). Prospectiva de Energía Renovables 2012–2026 [Prospective of renewable energy 2012–2026]. Ciudad de México: Gobierno Federal. Retrieved March 4, 2019, from https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/62954/Prospectiva_de_Energ_as_Renovables_2012-2026.pdf.
Gómez, L. B. (2009). El Mercado de la Energía Eólica en México’ [The wind-energy market in Mexico]. Oficina Económica y Comercial de la Embajada de España en Monterrey [Economic and Commercial Office of the Embassy of Spain in Monterrey], México.
Gonzalez, J. A., & Pérez-Floriano, L. R. (2015). If you can’t take the heat: Cultural beliefs about questionable conduct, stigma, punishment, and withdrawal among Mexican police officers. Organization Studies, 36(5), 665–687.
Graff, M., Carley, S., & Pirog, M. (2019). A review of the environmental policy literature from 2014 to 2017 with a closer look at the energy justice field. Policy Studies Journal, 47(S1), S17–S44.
Hernández, A. L., Cerami, A. D. U., Bartolo, F. R., Hernández, L. L., & Ceballos, X. R. P. (2017). Informe sobre la situación de las personas defensoras de los derechos humanos ambientales en México (2016). Ciudad de México: Centro Mexicano de Derecho Ambiental A.C. (CEMDA).
Human Rights Council. (2018). Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders on his Mission to Mexico. Geneva: Human Rights Council. Retrieved February 9, 2019, from https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session37/_layouts/15/WopiFrame.aspx?sourcedoc=/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session37/Documents/A_HRC_37_51_Add_2_EN.docx&action=default&DefaultItemOpen=1.
INEGI. (2016). Estadísticas a Propósito del Día Internacional de los Pueblos Indígenas. Datos Nacionales. Encuesta Intercensal 2015. Aguascalientes: INEGI. Retrieved November 11, 2017, from http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/aproposito/2016/indigenas2016_0.pdf.
Inter-American Development Bank, IADB. (2011a). Eolica del Sur to build biggest wind farm in Mexico with IDB support. Retrieved March 6, 2019, from https://www.iadb.org/en/news/news-releases/2011-11-24/mexicos-marenas-renovables-wind-farm%2C9708.html.
Inter-American Development Bank, IADB. (2018). Renewable energy. Retrieved June 20, 2018, from https://www.iadb.org/en/topics/energy/renewable-energy%2C19008.html.
Inter-American Development Bank, IADB. (2011). Inter-American Development Bank Mexico Marena Renovables Wind Power Project (me-L1107) environmental category: A environmental and social management report (ESMR). Mexico: Inter-American Development Bank.
Jarzabkowski, P., Bednarek, R., & Lê, J. K. (2014). Producing persuasive findings: Demystifying ethnographic textwork in strategy and organization research. Strategic Organization, 12(4), 274–287.
Juárez-Hernández, S., & León, G. (2014). Energía eólica en el istmo de Tehuantepec: Desarrollo, actores y oposición social. Problemas del Desarrollo, 45(178), 139–162.
Kaos. (2013). Fallece Opositor a Proyecto Eólico Que Fue Baleado Por Sicarios de Gas Natural Fenosa. Retrieved October 20, 2015, from https://www.wind-watch.org/news/2013/08/07/fallece-opositor-a-proyecto-eolico-que-fue-baleado-por-sicarios-de-gas-natural-fenosa/.
Langley, A., & Klag, M. (2017). Being where? Navigating the involvement paradox in qualitative research accounts. Organizational Research Methods, 22(2), 1–24.
Lecuyer, L., White, R. M., Schmook, B., Lemay, V., & Calmé, S. (2018). The construction of feelings of justice in environmental management: An empirical study of multiple biodiversity conflicts in Calakmul, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Management, 213, 363–373.
Maher, R. (2018). Squeezing psychological freedom in corporate–community engagement. Journal of Business Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3898-y.
Maher, R. (2019). Pragmatic community resistance within new indigenous ruralities: Lessons from a failed hydropower dam in Chile. Journal of Rural Studies, 68, 63–74.
Manzo, D. (2018). La Jornada: Asesinan a Rolando Crispín López, Activista de Pueblos Indígenas, la JORNADA. Retrieved September 16, 2018, from https://www.jornada.com.mx/2018/07/24/politica/014n1pol.
McCauley, D., Heffron, R. J., Stephan, H., & Jenkins, K. (2013). Advancing energy justice: The triumvirate of tenets. International Energy Law Review, 32(3), 107–110.
McGovern, M. (2012). Developers face escalating militant opposition in Oaxaca. Windpower Monthly. Retrieved October 20, 2018, from https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1124476/developers-face-escalating-militant-opposition-oaxaca.
Mejorada, C. S. (1946). The Writ of Amparo. Mexican procedure to protect human rights. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 243, 107–111.
Noticias del Istmo. (2019). Inauguran en el Istmo el Parque Eólico Más Grande de América Latina. Noticias Del Istmo [The largest wind farm in Latin America is inaugurated on the Isthmus. News of the Isthmus]. Retrieved 20 June, 2019, from https://www.noticiasistmo.com/2019/05/inauguran-en-el-istmo-el-parque-eolico.html?fbclid=IwAR0XEKXnbiPCh-uxBDO9TOwAXdzJKoVZ2LiB9whSe5JrLrd4jZjtATSMWus#.XO3QtIHo6aM.facebook.
Peluso, N. L., & Vandergeest, P. (2011). Political ecologies of war and forests: Counterinsurgencies and the making of national natures. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 101(3), 587–608.
Pierpont, N. (2009). Wind turbine syndrome. A report on a natural experiment. Lowell, MA: King Printing.
PODER. (2015). Cuarto reporte de la misión de observación sobre el proceso de consulta indígena para la implementación de un proyecto eólico en Juchitán. Oaxaca: Centro De Derechos Humanos.
Preneal. (2011). Preneal Cierra la Venta de dos Proyectos Eólicos en Oaxaca (México). Retrieved October 13, 2013, from http://www.preneal.es/en/news/3-noticias/71-preneal-cierra-la-venta-de-dos-proyectos-eolicos-en-oaxaca-mexico-por-89-millones-de-dolares.
Quintana, R. S. D. (2015). Energía Limpia o Energía Perversa: Actores Sociales y Parques Eólicos en Dinamarca y en el Istmo de Tehuantepec. Retrieved June 26, 2017, from https://consultaindigenajuchitan.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/2015-enero-roberto-diego.pdf.
Ramirez, J., & Vester, T. (2013). Vestas and the indigenous communities in Oaxaca, Mexico: Clean energy gets messy. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from http://www.thecasecentre.org/educators/products/view?id=119297.
Renewable Energy Magazine. (2012). With 396 MW order, Vestas is on the rise in Latin America. Renewable Energy Magazine Wind. Retrieved October 13, 2013, from http://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/article/with-396-mw-order-vestas-is-on.
Romero, D., Montanyà, J., & Cancela, A. (2017). Behaviour of the wind-turbines under lightning strikes including nonlinear grounding system. Renewable Energy and Power Quality Journal, 1(2), 439–444.
Rubin, J. W. (1994). COCEI in Juchitán: Grassroots radicalism and regional history. Journal of Latin American Studies, 26(01), 109–136.
Rubin, J. W. (2004). Meanings and mobilizations: A cultural politics approach to social movements and states. Latin American Research Review, 39(3), 106–142.
Schlosberg, D. (2013). Theorising environmental justice: The expanding sphere of a discourse. Environmental Politics, 22(1), 37–55.
Secretaría de Energía. (2018). Infraestructura Eólica en México Creció 300 por Ciento [Wind infrastructure in Mexico grew 300 percent]: Pedro Joaquín Coldwell (PJC). Retrieved March 4, 2019, from https://www.gob.mx/sener/prensa/infraestructura-eolica-en-mexico-crecio-300-por-ciento-pjc.
Sikor, T., & Newell, P. (2014). Globalizing environmental justice? Geoforum, 54, 151–157.
State of Green. (2012). Vestas wins order for largest wind energy project in Latin America. Retrieved November 2, 2018, from https://stateofgreen.com/en/partners/state-of-green/news/vestas-wins-order-for-largest-wind-energy-project-in-latin-america/.
Suprema Corte de la Nación. (2018). 10 Enero 2018, Lista Sesión Fallados, Datos Sensible. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from https://www.scjn.gob.mx/.
Terwindt, C., & Schliamann, C. (2017). Mexico’s energy: A tale of threats, intimidation, and dispossession of indigenous peoples. In H. Böll (Ed.), Tricky business: Space for civil society in natural resource struggles (pp. 46–51). Berlin: ARNOLD Group Companies.
Toke, D., Breukers, S., & Wolsink, M. (2008). Wind power deployment outcomes: How can we account for the differences? Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12(4), 1129–1147.
United Nations. (2011). Guiding principles on business and human rights. Implementing the United Nations Protect, Respect and Remedy Framework. New York: United Nations.
United Nations. (2015). Sustainable development goals. Retrieved June 19, 2018, from http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html.
United Nations. (2018). International Mother Earth Day—22 April. Retrieved February 7, 2019, from http://www.un.org/en/events/motherearthday/.
Urkidi, L. (2010). A glocal environmental movement against gold mining: Pascua-Lama in Chile. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 219–227.
Urkidi, L., & Walter, M. (2011). Dimensions of environmental justice in anti-gold mining movements in Latin America. Geoforum, 42(6), 683–695.
Vestas. (2019). Climate change. Retrieved March 4, 2019, from https://www.vestas.com/en/about/sustainability#!.
Walker, G., & Bulkeley, H. (2006). Geographies of environmental justice. Geoforum, 37(5), 655–659.
Weinrub, A., & Giancatarino, A. (2015). Toward a climate justice energy platform: Democratizing our energy future. Retrieved November 18, 2018, from http://www.localcleanenergy.org/files/ClimateJusticeEnergyPlatform.pdf.
Zárate-Toledo, E., Patiño, R., & Fraga, J. (2019). Justice, social exclusion and indigenous opposition: A case study of wind energy development on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. Energy Research and Social Science, 54, 1–11.
Zografos, C., & Martínez-Alier, J. (2009). The politics of landscape value: A case study of wind farm conflict in rural Catalonia. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 41(7), 1726–1744.
Acknowledgements
I appreciate the constructive guidance and encouragement provided by Sara Louise Muhr, Section Editor: Critical Studies and Business Ethics as well as three reviewers. I thank María Andrea Nardi, Ana María Munar, Kai Hockerts, and the Members of the Centre for Business and Development Studies (CBDS) at Copenhagen Business School (CBS) for their helpful comments on a previous paper draft. This article is dedicated to the Zapotecas, Ikoots, and other indigenous peoples around the world who continue to sacrifice their lives for the protection and sustainable development of Mother Earth.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ramirez, J. Contentious Dynamics Within the Social Turbulence of Environmental (In)justice Surrounding Wind Energy Farms in Oaxaca, Mexico. J Bus Ethics 169, 387–404 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04297-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04297-3