Skip to content
Licensed Unlicensed Requires Authentication Published by Academic Studies Press October 1, 2018

Evolutionary Perspectives on Popular Culture: State of the Art

  • Catherine Salmon

Abstract

Utilizing an evolutionary perspective has proven fruitful in a number of areas of interest outside of the standard psychological or anthropological topics. This includes a wide range of fields from applied disciplines such as law, criminology, medicine, and marketing, to the study of the imagined worlds found in art and literature, the domains of the humanities. A number of excellent books, as well as numerous articles, detail the impressive work done in applying evolutionary insights to the study of art and literature. This article focuses on evolutionarily informed explorations of popular culture, an area that, only relatively recently, has benefited from research taking this approach. The existing scholarship in this area will be reviewed, and future directions and challenges highlighted.

Works Cited

Alessi, Galen. 1992. “Models of Proximate and Ultimate Causation in Psychology.”American Psychologist47 (11): 135970. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.11.1359.10.1037/0003-066X.47.11.1359Search in Google Scholar

Antoszewski, Bogusław, Aneta Sitek, Marta Fijalkowska, Anna Kasielska, and Julia Kruk-Jerome. 2009. “Tattooing and Body Piercing: What Motivates You to Do It?”International Journal of Social Psychiatry56 (5): 47179. doi:10.1177/0020764009106253.10.1177/0020764009106253Search in Google Scholar

Armstrong, Myrna L., Alden E. Roberts, Donna C. Owen, and Jerome R. Koch. 2004. “Contemporary College Students and Body Piercing.”Journal of Adolescent Health35 (1): 5861. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.08.012.10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00338-0Search in Google Scholar

Bernhardt Paul C., James M. Dabbs Jr, Julie Fielden, Candice Lutter. 1998. “Changes in Testosterone Levels During Vicarious Experiences of Winning and Losing Among Fans at Sporting Events.”Physiology and Behavior65 (1): 5962. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(98)00147-4.10.1016/S0031-9384(98)00147-4Search in Google Scholar

Best, Paul, Roger Manktelow., and Brian Taylor. 2014. “Online Communication, Social Media and Adolescent Wellbeing: A Systematic Narrative Review.”Children and Youth Services Review4: 2736. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.001.10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.001Search in Google Scholar

Boyd, Brian. 2009. On the Origin of Stories. Boston: Harvard University Press.10.2307/j.ctvjf9xvkSearch in Google Scholar

Boyd, Brian. 2010. “On the Origins of Comics: New York Double-Take.”The Evolutionary Review1 (1): 97111. http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/21515778.01.01.19.pdf.Search in Google Scholar

Buss, David M.2016. The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books.Search in Google Scholar

Buss, David M., Randy J. Larsen, Drew Westen, and Jennifer Semmelroth. 1992. “Sex Differences in Jealousy: Evolution, Physiology, and Psychology.”Psychological Science3 (4): 25156. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00038.x.10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00038.xSearch in Google Scholar

Buss, David M., Todd K. Shackelford, Lee A. Kirkpatrick, Jae C. Choe, Hang K. Lim, Mariko Hasegawa, Toshikazu Hasegawa, and Kevin Bennett. 1999. “Jealousy and the Nature of Beliefs About Infidelity: Tests of Competing Hypotheses About Sex Differences in the United States, Korea, and Japan.”Personal Relationships6 (10): 12550. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.1999.tb00215.x.10.1111/j.1475-6811.1999.tb00215.xSearch in Google Scholar

Carmen, Rachael A., Amanda E. Guitar, and Haley M. Dillon. 2012. “Ultimate Answers to Proximate Questions: The Evolutionary Motivations Behind Tattoos and Body Piercings in Popular Culture.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 13443. doi:10.1037/a0027908.10.1037/a0027908Search in Google Scholar

Carney, James, Robin Dunbar, Anna Machin, Tamas Dá vid-Barrett, Mauro Silva Júnior. 2014. “Social Psychology and the Comic-Book Superhero: A Darwinian Approach.”Philosophy and Literature38 (1): A195A215. doi:10.1353/phl.2014.0019.10.1353/phl.2014.0019Search in Google Scholar

Carney, James, and Pá draig Mac Carron. 2017. “Comic-Book Superheroes and Prosocial Agency: a Large-Scale Quantitative Analysis of the Effects of Cognitive Factors on Popular Representations.”Journal of Cognition and Culture17 (3–4): 30630. doi: 10.1163/15685373-12340009.10.1163/15685373-12340009Search in Google Scholar

Carroll, Joseph. 1995. Evolution and Literary Theory. St. Louis: University of Missouri Press.Search in Google Scholar

Carroll, Joseph. 2005. “Human Nature and Literary Meaning: A Theoretical Model Illustrated with a Critique of Pride and Prejudice. In The Literary Animal, edited by Jon Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, 197216. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.10.2307/j.ctvw1d5h1.11Search in Google Scholar

Carroll, Joseph. 2011. Reading Human Nature: Literary Darwinism in Theory and Practice. Albany: State University of New York Press.Search in Google Scholar

Carroll, Joseph, Mathias Clasen, Emelie Jonsson, Alexandra Regina Kratschmer, Luseadra McKerracher, Felix Riede, Jens-Christian Svenning, and Peter C. Kjærgaard. 2017. “Biocultural Theory: The Current State of Knowledge.”Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences11 (1): 115. doi:10.1037/ebs0000058.10.1037/ebs0000058Search in Google Scholar

Carroll, Joseph, John A. Johnson, Catherine Salmon, Jens Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, Mathias Clasen, and Emelie Jonsson. 2017. “A Cross-Disciplinary Survey of Beliefs about Human Nature, Culture, and Science.”Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture1 (1): 132. http://journals.academicstudiespress.com/index.php/ESIC/article/view/96.10.26613/esic/1.1.2Search in Google Scholar

Clasen, Mathias. 2012. “Monsters Evolve: A Biocultural Approach to Horror Stories.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 22229. doi:10.1037/a0027918.10.1037/a0027918Search in Google Scholar

Clasen, Mathias. 2017. Why Horror Seduces. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oso/9780190666507.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Clover, Carol J. (2015). Men, Women, and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Cox, Anthony, and Maryanne Fisher. 2009. “The Texas Billionaire's Pregnant Bride: An Evolutionary Interpretation of Romance Fiction Titles.”Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology3 (4): 386401. doi:10.1037/h0099308.10.1037/h0099308Search in Google Scholar

Daly, Martin, and Margo Wilson. 1998. The Truth About Cinderella: A Darwinian View of Parental Love. New Haven: Yale University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Davies, Alastair P.C.2006. “Big Pimpin’ and Paying’ My Bills: The Expression of Evolved Psychological Sex Differences in the Lyrics of Hip-hop Songs.” Presented at Human Behavior and Evolution Society Annual Meeting, June, University of Pennsylvania.Search in Google Scholar

De Backer, Charlotte J.S.2012. “Blinded by the Starlight: An Evolutionary Framework for Studying Celebrity Culture and Fandom.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 14451. doi:10.1037/a0027909.10.1037/a0027909Search in Google Scholar

Dunbar, Robin I.M.1996. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Dunn, Michael J.2018. “Younger Escorts Advertise Higher Charges Online than Older Escorts for Sexual Services Cross-Culturally.”Evolutionary Psychological Science. doi:10.1007/s40806-018-0142-z.10.1007/s40806-018-0142-zSearch in Google Scholar

Dutton, Denis. 2009. The Art Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Figueredo, Aurelio Jose, Geneva Vá squez, Barbara H. Brumbach, and Stephanie M. Schneider. 2007. “The K-factor, Covitality, and Personality.”Human Nature18 (1): 4773. doi:10.1007/BF02820846.10.1007/BF02820846Search in Google Scholar

Fisher, Maryanne L., and Christina Candea. 2012. “You Ain't Woman Enough to Take My Man: Female Intrasexual Competition as Portrayed in Songs.”Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology6 (4): 48093. doi:10.1037/h0099238.10.1037/h0099238Search in Google Scholar

Fisher, Maryanne L., and Anthony Cox. 2010. “Man Change Thyself: Hero vs. Heroine Development in Harlequin Romance Novels.”Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology4 (4): 30516. doi:10.1037/h0099281.10.1037/h0099281Search in Google Scholar

Fisher, Maryanne L., and Tami Meredith. 2012. “The Success Behind the Candy-colored Covers: An Evolutionary Perspective on Romance Novels.”The Evolutionary Review3 (1): 15467.Search in Google Scholar

Fiske, John. 2010. Understanding Popular Culture. New York: Routledge.10.4324/9780203837177Search in Google Scholar

Gilbert, Steve. (2001). Tattoo History: A Source Book. New York: Juno Books.Search in Google Scholar

Gorry, April. 1999. Leaving Home for Romance: Tourist Women's Adventures Abroad. Unpublished PhD dissertation. University of California at Santa Barbara.Search in Google Scholar

Gottschall, Jonathan. 2008. The Rape of Troy: Evolution, Violence, and the World of Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Gottschall, Jonathan. 2012. The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make us Human. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Search in Google Scholar

Gottschall, Jonathan. 2015. The Professor in the Cage: Why Men Fight and Why We Like to Watch. New York: Penguin Books.Search in Google Scholar

Gottschall, Jonathan, and David Sloan Wilson, eds. The Literary Animal: Evolution and the Nature of Narrative. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University PressSearch in Google Scholar

Grodal, Torben. 2007. “Pain, Sadness, Aggression, and Joy: An Evolutionary Approach to Film Emotions.”Projections1 (1): 91107. doi:10:3167/proj.2007.010107.Search in Google Scholar

Grodal, Torben. 2009. Embodied Visions: Evolution, Emotion, Culture, and Film. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195371314.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Hashemi-Shahri, Seyed Mohammad, Batool Sharifi-Mood, Maliheh Metanat, Masoud Salehi, and Roshanak Sharifi. 2016. “Blood-Borne Infections in Tattooed People.”International Journal of Infection3 (2): e34944. doi: 10.17795/iji34944.10.17795/iji-34944Search in Google Scholar

Hobbs, Dawn R., and Gordon G. Gallup, Jr.2011. “Songs as a Medium for Embedded Reproductive Messages.”Evolutionary Psychology9 (3): 390416. doi:10.1177/147470491100900309.10.1177/147470491100900309Search in Google Scholar

Hurley, Matthew M., Daniel C. Dennett, and Reginald B. Adams. 2011. Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/9027.001.0001Search in Google Scholar

Ingalls, Victoria. 2012. “Sex Differences in the Creation of Fictional Heroes with Particular Emphasis on Female Heroes and Superheroes in Popular Culture: Insights from Evolutionary Psychology.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 20821. doi: 10.1037/a0027917.10.1037/a0027917Search in Google Scholar

Jenkins, Henry. 2005. “‘Never Trust a Snake’: WWF Wrestling as Masculine Melodrama.” In Steel Chair to the Head: The Pleasure and Pain of Professional Wrestling, edited by Nicholas Sammond, 3366. Durham: Duke University Press.10.2307/j.ctv11smpbc.6Search in Google Scholar

Jonason, Peter. K., Gregory D. Webster, David P. Schmitt, Norman P. Li, and Laura Crysel. 2012. “The Antihero in Popular Culture: Life History Theory and the Dark Triad Personality Traits.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 19299. doi:10.1037/a0027914.10.1037/a0027914Search in Google Scholar

Kanazawa, Satoshi. 2002. “Bowling with Our Imaginary Friends.”Evolution and Human Behavior23 (3): 16771. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(01)00098-8.10.1016/S1090-5138(01)00098-8Search in Google Scholar

Kilgallon, Sarah J., and Leigh W. Simmons. 2005. “Image Content Influences Men's Semen Quality.”Biology Letters1 (3): 25355. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0324.10.1098/rsbl.2005.0324Search in Google Scholar

King, Robert. 2015. “A Regiment of Monstrous Women: Female Horror Archetypes and Life History Theory.”Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences9 (3): 17085. doi:10.1037/ebs0000037.10.1037/ebs0000037Search in Google Scholar

Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, Jens. 2017. “The Bad Breaks of Walter White: An Evolutionary Approach to the Fictional Anti-hero.”Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture1 (1): 10320. doi:10.26613/esic.1.1.19.10.26613/esic.1.1.19Search in Google Scholar

Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, Jens. 2016. “Evil Origins: A Darwinian Genealogy of the Popcultural Villain. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences10 (2): 10922. doi:10.1037/ebs0000057.10.1037/ebs0000057Search in Google Scholar

Kosut, Mary. 2006. “An Ironic Fad: The Commodification and Consumption of Tattoos.”Journal of Popular Culture39 (6): 103548. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00333.x.10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00333.xSearch in Google Scholar

Kruger, Daniel J., Maryanne L. Fisher, and Ian Jobling. 2003. “Proper and Dark Heroes as Dads and Cads. Human Nature14 (3): 30517. doi:10.1007/s12110-003-1008-y.10.1007/s12110-003-1008-ySearch in Google Scholar

Kruger, Daniel J., Maryanne L. Fisher, and Ian Jobling. 2005. “Proper Hero Dads and Dark Hero Cads: Alternate Mating Strategies Exemplified in British Romantic Literature.” In The Literary Animal: Evolution and the Nature of Narrative, edited by Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, 22543. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.10.2307/j.ctvw1d5h1.18Search in Google Scholar

Koziel, Slawomir, Weronika Kretschmer, and Broguslow Pawlowski. 2010. “Tattoo and Piercing as Signals of Biological Quality.”Evolution and Human Behavior31 (3): 18792. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.009.10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.009Search in Google Scholar

Kuhle, Barry. X.2011. “Did You Have Sex with Him? Do You Love Her? An In Vivo Test of Sex Differences in Jealous Interrogations.”Personality and Individual Differences51 (8): 104447. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.034.10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.034Search in Google Scholar

Kuhle, Barry. X.2012. “It's Funny Because It's True (Because it Evokes our Evolved Psychology).”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 17786. doi: 10.1037/a0027912.10.1037/a0027912Search in Google Scholar

Kurzban, Robert. 2012. “Cheatin’ Hearts and Loaded Guns: The High Fitness Stakes of Country Music Lyrics.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 18791. doi:10.1037/a0027913.10.1037/a0027913Search in Google Scholar

Laumann, Anne E., and Amy J. Derick. 2006. “Tattoos and Body Piercings in the United States: A National Data Set.”Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology55 (3): 41321. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.03.026.10.1016/j.jaad.2006.03.026Search in Google Scholar

Lynn, Christopher D., Johnna T. Dominguez, and Jason A. Decaro. 2016. “Tattooing to ‘Toughen up’: Tattoo Experience and Secretory Immunoglobulin A.”American Journal of Human Biology28 (5): 6039. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22847.10.1002/ajhb.22847Search in Google Scholar

Martin, Rod A.2007. The Psychology of Humor: An Integrative Approach. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.Search in Google Scholar

McDonald, Melissa M., Carlos David Navarrete, and Mark Van Vugt. 2012. “Evolution and the Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: The Male Warrior Hypothesis.”Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B367 (1589): 67079. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0301.10.1098/rstb.2011.0301Search in Google Scholar

Miller, Geoffrey F.2000. The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. New York: Doubleday & Co.Search in Google Scholar

Mithen, Steven. 2006. The Singing Neanderthals. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Ogas, Ogi, and Sai Gaddam. 2011. A Billion Wicked Thoughts: What the World's Largest Experiment Reveals About Human Desire. New York: Dutton.Search in Google Scholar

Orians, Gordon H., and Judith H. Heerwagen. 1992. “Evolved Responses to Landscapes.” In The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture, edited by Jerome H. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, 55579. New York: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Oxford, Jonathan, Davide Ponzi, and David C. Geary. 2010. “Hormonal Responses Differ When Playing Violent Video Games Against an Ingroup and Outgroup.”Evolution and Human Behavior31 (3): 2019. doi:10.1016/j.evolhum-behav.2009.07.002.10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.07.002Search in Google Scholar

Patel, Mukesh, and C. Glenn Cobbs. 2016. “Infections from Body Piercing and Tattoos.” In Infections of Leisure, Fifth Edition, edited by David Schlossberg, 30723. Washington: American Society of Microbiology.10.1128/9781555819231.ch15Search in Google Scholar

Pinker, Steven. 1999. How the Mind Works. New York: Penguin.10.1037/e412892005-002Search in Google Scholar

Pinker, Steven. 2007. “Toward a Consilient Study of Literature.”Philosophy and Literature31 (1): 16278. doi:10.1353/phl.2007.0016.10.1353/phl.2007.0016Search in Google Scholar

Pound, Nicholas. 2002. “Male Interest in Visual Cues of Sperm Competition Risk.”Evolution and Human Behavior23 (6): 44366. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00103-4.10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00103-4Search in Google Scholar

Rock, C. (Executive Producer). (2008). Chris Rock: Kill the Messenger – London, New York, Johannesburg[DVD]. HBO.Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine. 2012a. “The Pop Culture of Sex: An Evolutionary Window on the Worlds of Pornography and Romance.”Review of General Psychology16 (2): 15260. doi:10.1037/a0027910.10.1037/a0027910Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine. 2012b. “The World of Sports Entertainment: Evolutionary Drama in the Squared Circle.”The Evolutionary Review3 (1): 10815.Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine. 2016. “What Do Romance Novels, Pro-Wrestling, and Mack Bolan Have in Common? Consilience and the Pop Culture of Storytelling.” In Darwin's Bridge: Uniting the Humanities and Sciences, edited by Joseph Carroll, Dan P. McAdams, and Edward O. Wilson, 16782. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231217.003.0010Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine, and Susan Clerc. 2005. “Ladies Love Wrestling Too: Female Wrestling Fans Online”. In Steel Chair to the Head: The Pleasure and Pain of Professional Wrestling, edited by Nicholas Sammond, 16791. Durham: Duke University Press.10.2307/j.ctv11smpbc.11Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine, Charles Crawford, Laura Dane, and Oonagh Zuberbier. 2008. “Ancestral Mechanisms in Modern Environments.”Human Nature19 (1): 10317. doi:10.1007/s12110-008-9030-8.10.1007/s12110-008-9030-8Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine, and Maryanne L. Fisher. 2018. “Putting the “Sex” into “Sexuality”: Understanding Online Pornography using an Evolutionary Framework.”EvoS: The Journal of the Evolutionary Studies Consortium 9, Sp. Iss (2): 115.Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine, and Donald Symons. 2004. “Slash Fiction and Human Mating Psychology.”Journal of Sex Research41 (1): 94100. doi:10.1080/ 00224490409552217.10.1080/00224490409552217Search in Google Scholar

Salmon, Catherine, and Donald Symons. 2001. Warrior Lovers: Erotic Fiction, Evolution and Female Sexuality. New Haven: Yale University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Schwab, Frank, and Clemens Schwender. 2010. “The Descent of Emotions in Media: Darwinian Perspectives.” In The Routledge Handbook of Emotions and Mass Media, edited by Katrin Doveling, Christian von Scheve, and Elly A. Konijn, 2950. Abingdon: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar

Singh, Devendra, and P. Matthew Bronstad. 1997. “Sex Differences in the Anatomical Locations of Human Body Scarification and Tattooing as a Function of Pathogen Prevalence.”Evolution and Human Behavior18 (6): 40316. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(97)00089-5.10.1016/S1090-5138(97)00089-5Search in Google Scholar

Stever, Gayle S.2017. “Evolutionary Theory and Reactions to Mass Media: Understanding Parasocial Attachment.”Psychology of Popular Media Culture6 (2): 95102. doi:10.1037/ppm0000116.10.1037/ppm0000116Search in Google Scholar

Sturman, Edward. 2012. “The Evolution of the Sexless, Loveless, Action Hero in Modern Film.”The Evolutionary Review3 (1): 7884.Search in Google Scholar

Swami, Viren. 2012. “Written on the Body? Individual Differences between British Adults Who Do and Do Not Obtain a First Tattoo.”Personality and Social Psychology53 (5): 40712. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2012.00960.x.10.1111/j.1467-9450.2012.00960.xSearch in Google Scholar

Thornhill, Randy, and Steven W. Gangestad. 2015. “The Functional Design and Phylogeny of Women's Sexuality.” In The Evolution of Sexuality, edited by Todd K. Shackelford & Ranald Hansen, 14984. New York: Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-09384-0_8Search in Google Scholar

Thornhill, Randy, and Anders Pape Moller. 1997. “Developmental Stability, Diseases, and Medicine.”Biological Reviews72 (4): 497548. doi:10.1017/S0006323197005082.10.1017/S0006323197005082Search in Google Scholar

Tooby, John, and Leda Cosmides. 2001. “Does Beauty Build Adapted Minds? Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Aesthetics, Fiction, and the Arts.”SubStance, 30 (1): 627. doi:10.1353/sub.2001.0017.10.1353/sub.2001.0017Search in Google Scholar

Volk, Anthony A., Andrew V. Dane, and Zopito A. Marini. 2014. “What is Bullying? A Theoretical Redefinition.”Developmental Review34 (4): 32743. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2014.09.001.10.1016/j.dr.2014.09.001Search in Google Scholar

Wallin, Nils L., Bjorn Merker, and Steven Brown. 2000. The Origins of Music. Cambridge: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar

Wilson, Margo, and Martin Daly. 1997. “Life Expectancy, Economic Inequality, Homicide, and Reproductive Timing in Chicago Neighbourhoods.”BMJ: British Medical Journal314 (7089): 127174. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7089.1271.10.1136/bmj.314.7089.1271Search in Google Scholar

Wohlrab, Silke, Jutta Stahl, Thomas Rammsayer, and Peter Kappeler. 2007. “Differences in Personality Characteristics between Body-Modified and Non-Modified Individuals: Associations with Individual Personality Traits and Their Possible Evolutionary Implications.”European Journal of Personality21 (7): 93151. doi: /10.1002/per.642.10.1002/per.642Search in Google Scholar

Wrangham, Richard. W.1999. “Evolution of Coalitionary Killing.”American Journal of Physical Anthropology110 (S29): 130. doi: 0.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1999)110:29+3.0.CO;2-E.10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1999)110:29+<1::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-ESearch in Google Scholar

Zahavi, Amotz. 1977. “The Cost of Honesty.”Journal of Theoretical Biology67 (3): 6035. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(77)90061-3.10.1016/0022-5193(77)90061-3Search in Google Scholar

Zuckerman, Marvin, and D. Michael Kuhlman. 2000. “Personality and Risk Taking: Common Bisocial Factors. Journal of Personality68 (6): 9991029. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00124.10.1111/1467-6494.00124Search in Google Scholar

Published Online: 2018-10-01
Published in Print: 2018-10-01

© 2018 Academic Studies Press

Downloaded on 30.4.2024 from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.26613/esic.2.2.92/html
Scroll to top button