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Minakata Kumagusu – Ethical Implications of the Great Naturalist’s Thought for Addressing Problems Embedded in Modern Science

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Tetsugaku Companion to Japanese Ethics and Technology

Part of the book series: Tetsugaku Companions to Japanese Philosophy ((TCJP,volume 1))

  • The original version of this chapter was revised: MS Mincho font was updated throughout the book for Japanese and Chinese characters. The correction to this book is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59027-1_13

Abstract

When facing an unpredictable natural disaster, well-managed and carefully-built complex and large-scale technologies are apt to fail because of the unmanageable complexity of its own creation. Perhaps such perception is prominent in the 2011 Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear reactor disaster (Nuclear power plant (civilian nuclear) accidents have been occurring since the 1950s. In 1990, the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) have introduced a scale named INES (International Nuclear Event Scale) which rates from Level 0 to 7, in order to enhance prompt international communication of safety issues in the event of a nuclear accident occurring. The three large-scale major accidents are, the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 (INES Level 5), the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 (INES Level 7), and the Fukushima Dai-ichi disaster in 2011 (INES Level 7)). Though Fukushima’s case was initially taken as one whole disaster, after a thorough investigation, it is known that its occurrence was driven by the twin combination of a natural disaster and a man-made disaster. If we are to face uncontrollable and unpredictable natural disasters combined with human error, how can we control such a twin disaster situation? Is Fukushima’s case warning us of a tit-for-tat game between nature and technology, an iterated prisoner’s dilemma game which humans are continuously making efforts to play through the development of large-scale technology and its underpinning science? How can we conceive of science and technology in our modern risk society? In this chapter, by looking into Minakata Kumagusu’s critical view of modern science regarding the difference between inga 因果 (causality) and engi 縁起 (dependent co-arising), I would like to draw out ethical implications from Kumagusu’s view, which might give us a hint for choosing an alternative future; a future in which, even with possible problem-solving technology on hand, a conscious and careful choice can be made not to install those technologies for fear of the uncertainties embedded in technology itself and to consciously avoid the unpredictability of the butterfly or boomerang effects caused by an as yet “unknown” causality (Among the scholars of Minakata Kumagusu, generally he is addressed Kumagusu. Therefore, in this chapter I follow their custom).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For further information on Kumagusu’s contribution to Nature, refer to Īkura (2005).

  2. 2.

    The Shrine Merger Order issued in 1906 by the Meiji government was an Imperial Order (chokurei 勅令) to merge or to abolish the shrines with a purpose of strengthening the National Shintō (kokka shintō 国家神道). The movement continued till 1914 till 35 percent of the shrines (approximately 70,000 shrines) were abolished or merged into a larger shrine. Kumagusu took a lead in the movement against the Shrine Merger Order in order to preserve traditional customs and practices, and to protect the nature, mainly shrine forests, surrounding shrines. His archived statement letter, opposing to the Order, is mainly addressed to Prof. Shirai Mitsutarō 白井光太郎 of Tokyo Imperial University.

  3. 3.

    Kumagusu’s house is preserved with his writings at Minakata Kumagusu Archive (Minakata Kumagusu Kenshōkan).

  4. 4.

    Dogi Hōryu (or Toki Hōryu/Toki Hōrin, 1855–1923) was a Shingon 真言 school priest. He studied at the Keiō University with Shaku Sōen 釈宗演 (1859–1919) who was a Rinzai 臨済 priest under the guidance of Fukuzawa Yukichi 福澤諭吉 (1835–1901). In 1893, both Hōryu and Sōen were invited to give a speech during the World’s Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in September. On his way to Paris after the Chicago conference, he stopped by at London, where he met Kumagusu at a home party held on 30 October 1893 at Nakai Hōnan 中井芳楠 (1853–1903)‘s house. Kumagusu spent with Hōryu from 31 October till 3 November, till when Hōryu had to depart from London to Paris.

  5. 5.

    The correspondences between Minakata Kumagusu and Dogi Hōryu begun on 19 December 1893 and was understood that it ended on 8 May 1916 with Kumagusu asking Hōryu to send him back all his letters sent to Hōryu. However, a recent research conducted, in 2004, has discovered that their correspondence started on 3 November 1893 and continued until 1922, a year before Hōryu passed away.

  6. 6.

    According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “mandala” originally means “disc” in Sanskrit, and is a circular figure representing the universe in Hindu and (mantra) Buddhist symbolism.

  7. 7.

    Kinzoku Ō Nyorai (the Golden Grain Tathagata) originally appears in the Vimalakirti Sutra (Yuima kyō 維摩経). Kinzoku Ō Nyorai is known as the other name of the layman, Yuima 維摩 in the Vimalakirti Sutra.

  8. 8.

    In Kumagusu’s writings, he often indicates the differences between the West and East. However, it is not my intention to follow his simplified view on the differences of the West and East, neither to show such differences in this chapter.

  9. 9.

    Mono 物 is translated as a “substance”, not as a “matter”, since I wanted to emphasize Kumagusu’s intention on criticizing that the science focuses on the limited aspects of the research object. Kokoro 心 is translated as “heart-mind” and it connotes “consciousness” as well. I chose “heart-mind” with an intention to reflect his interests on dreams and spiritual ghosts in his later life.

  10. 10.

    All the Japanese text translations from here onwards are done by the author. See Quotation 1 for Japanese.

  11. 11.

    See Quotation 2 for Japanese.

  12. 12.

    Kumagusu’s idea of “world/ kai” resembles the “theory of Umwelt” developed by a biologist, Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944). The “theory of Umwelt” is developed based on the studies on how various organisms sense their world. In other words, Uexküll’s attempt was to overcome the subject-object divide by focusing on the “environment (umwelt)” constructed by the organisms (research object).

  13. 13.

    The differences between objective time (clock time) and subjective time is well known among the scholars in psychology and behavioural science. The latest quantum mechanics works on explaining the different time notion and on different concepts of time that might scientifically be explained logically.

  14. 14.

    It is interesting to note, as Nakazawa Shinichi analysed, Kumagusu has developed his own reading and understanding of the sutras by coupling the teaching of the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Mahavairocana Tantra (Dainichi kyō 大日経). The author is aware that the Vairocana in Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahavairocana in Mahavairocana Tantra have different origins. However, in the manuscripts of Kumagusu, his understanding regarding the difference between Mahavairocana and Vairocana is not clear. In his letter written on 3 March 1894, Kumagusu describes Mahavairocana (Dainichi nyorai) as a “strange and superb wonder (妙不可思議がすなわち大日如来なり)” indicating the primordial Buddha. Therefore, here, I chose to translate Dainichi nyorai 大日如来 as Mahavairocana instead of Vairocana to stress the unique reading of Kumagusu.

  15. 15.

    For further reference see Minakata (1971: 175 (Letter dated 21 December 1893), 200 (5 February 1894), 228 (4 March 1894), 392 (8 August 1903)).

  16. 16.

    “Indra’s jewel net” is developed from Avatamsaka Sutra and is normally used to describe the interconnectedness of the universe, inspired by a jewel net and a reflection in a jewel, reflecting endless reflections of other jewels (Cook 1977).

  17. 17.

    See Quotation 3 for Japanese.

  18. 18.

    I am not going to discuss into details of this Kumagusu’s understanding of Buddhist teachings in this essay since I believe it is another issue to be argued in a different occasion.

  19. 19.

    Kumagusu himself acknowledges that he is drawing mandala in his letter to Hōryu dated 8 August 1903 and 24 March 1904, pointing to his drawing in his letter dated 8 August. To clearly differentiate the two, I have named the drawing dated 8 August as Minakata Mandala op.2. As mentioned, the vernacular term, Minakata Mandala, was coined by Tsurumi Kazuko in reference to Kumagusu’s drawing in his letter written on 18 July 1903 (I have named it, Minakata Mandala op.1). However, there is no sign or writings left that Kumagusu himself thought Mianakata Mandala op.1 as his mandala. Tsurumi confesses in her book that she got the idea of calling Minakata’s drawing, Minakata Mandala from Dr. Nakamura Hajime 中村元.

  20. 20.

    Fushigi could also be translated as “mystery.” I chose to use “wonder” in want of highlighting Kumagusu’s appreciation and notion of the “wonderful nature.”

  21. 21.

    See Quotation 4 for Japanese.

  22. 22.

    In his letter dated 5 February 1894, Kumagusu explains logic and mathematics as being “abstract science;” astronomy, physics and chemistry as being “abstract concrete science;” and physiology, biology, psychology, science, and humanities as being “concrete science” (Minakata 1971: 197).

  23. 23.

    See Quotation 5 for Japanese. Though I describe the literal translation of suiten in parentheses, there are various interpretations on suiten among Japanese scholars. Further research as to defining what really Kumagusu meant by suiten has to be conducted.

  24. 24.

    Although Kumagusu mentions his letter to D.T. Suzuki the original letters are still missing.

  25. 25.

    Kumagusu uses the Chinese character 二而不二 for nini-funi. However, Shingon school uses the character 而二不二 when explaining the ryōbu-funi concept in general. Ryōbu-funi is the world view that understands two identical things as not separated from each other but one single thing.

  26. 26.

    See Quotation 6 for Japanese.

  27. 27.

    Here I chose to use “coincidence” to translate the word en 縁. In Japanese, en has several connoted meaning as chance, karma, relationship, bond, fate, and destiny. I chose to translate engi 縁起 as “dependent co-arising”, by considering the Japanese context of the word en. However, I think here, en is better translated as “coincidence” as to emphasize the striking occurrence of two or more events at one time (or instantly) happening by mere chance, like a coincidental event.

  28. 28.

    See Quotation 7 for Japanese.

  29. 29.

    The Diamond Realm mandala is drawn in a three by three matrix format, representing the nine stages of Buddha. Therefore, Diamond Realm mandala is also known as Nine-stage mandala (Kue mandala 九会曼荼羅). Though it is numbered for convenience, in Esoteric Buddhism there is no hierarchy among the five wisdoms.

  30. 30.

    Kūkai, in his book “Han’nya Shingyō Hiken 般若心経秘鍵”, explains his understanding of “Heart Sutra, Han’nya Shingyō 般若心経”. The book explains that “heart (kokoro 心)” stands for the “True Word (shingon 真言),” the very essence of his philosophy (Takemura 2015: 132). Therefore, Kuamgusu’s idea of setting the “heart-mind’ in the centre of his mandala is compatible with Kūkai’s philosophy.

  31. 31.

    Although I am not going to explore in detail, because of the limitation of the space, the concept of nini-funi may also be applied to the ideal usage of science and technology: Womb Realm represents science and Diamond Realm represents technology. Without careful interplay and mutual complements, both science and technology could lead the society into unintended outcomes as observed in the 2011 Fukushima incident.

  32. 32.

    End-of-pipe technology is a technology and a method used to remove formed contaminants in the last stage of a process before air, water and soil are disposed from chemical processes.

  33. 33.

    There are six gases identified as GHGs under Kyoto Protocol namely; carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

  34. 34.

    According to the IPCC, geoengineering technologies are defined as follows: a broad set of technologies that aim to deliberately alter the climate system in order to alleviate the impact of climate change. Most, but not all, methods seek to either (a) reduce the amount of absorbed solar energy in the climate system (Solar Radiation Management) or (b) increase net carbon sinks from the atmosphere at a scale sufficiently large to alter climate (Carbon Dioxide Removal). Solar Radiation Management (SRM) refers to the intentional modification of the Earth’s shortwave radiative budget with the aim to reduce climate change according to a given metric (e.g., surface temperature, precipitation, regional impacts, etc.) The well-known two examples of SRM techniques are artificial injection of stratospheric aerosols and cloud brightening. CDR methods refer to a set of techniques that aim to remove CO2 directly from the atmosphere by either (1) increasing natural sinks for carbon or (2) using chemical engineering to remove the CO2, with the intent of reducing the atmospheric CO2 concentration. CDR methods involve the ocean, land, and technical systems, including such methods as iron fertilization, large-scale afforestation, and direct capture of CO2 from the atmosphere using engineered chemical means.

  35. 35.

    See Quotation 8 for Japanese.

  36. 36.

    Though I acknowledge that there are various arguments on the relationship between “quality” and “quantity,”, in this paper, I focus on the problem embedded in “quantifying”.

  37. 37.

    See Quotation 9 for Japanese.

  38. 38.

    “Black swan theory” or “Theory of black swan events” is a metaphor describing unexpected events of large magnitude and consequence that comes as a surprise. Taleb got the original idea from his analysis of financial crises and extended his concept to other historical events such as the rise of the internet, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the September 2001 attacks. Since the “black swan” events are impossible to predict, Taleb proposes to build robustness in society in preparation for such huge negative impacts.

  39. 39.

    Non-naïve way could be to blindly use any possible technologies in hands without considering the consequences of their usage.

  40. 40.

    After the 11 March 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, the government officials and representatives of TEPCO (Tokyo Electric Power Company) were repetitively using the word “unimaginable, unthinkable situation (souteigai no jitai 想定外の事態)”.

  41. 41.

    Most advanced technologies originally derive from military-purpose technological development, including geoengineering technology. The argument can easily be made on the pros, cons, and its social impacts of developed technologies and their usage. The examples of such technologies in question are the nuclear power plant (the peaceful use of atomic bomb technology), computer science (including Artificial Intelligence), high-speed telecommunication, internet, molecular biology, and its related stem-cell technology, etc.

  42. 42.

    The author is fully aware, in terms of ethics; Kumagusu could be straightforwardly dealt with in regard to his opposition against Shrine Merger Order. However, when appreciating his knowledge and argument on science and scientific approach in combination with his unique understandings on Buddhism, I think it is much more important and thought provocative to interpret his earlier works into ethics.

  43. 43.

    Environmental assessments are encouraged in most of the countries before implementing large-scale technologies. However, environmental assessments are limited to assessing objects that is already recognized as environmental indicator.

  44. 44.

    The concept of Spaceship Earth is known widely through Adlai Stevenson’s (American Ambassador to the United Nations) speech to the UN made in 1965. The analysis on the background to Stevenson’s speech in relation to the Cold War is done by Richard Deese. The thinker, Buckminster Fuller, who took up Stevenson’s idea is also famous for advocating the term Spaceship Earth in terms of environmental protection. The detailed analysis on Fuller’s intention is done by Peder Anker.

  45. 45.

    See Quotation 10 for Japanese.

  46. 46.

    See Quotation 11 for Japanese.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Tokyo, University of Tokyo Center for Philosophy, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Meguro, Tokyo, Japan

    Maki SATO

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Correspondence to Maki SATO .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Engineering Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

    Thomas Taro LENNERFORS

  2. School of Commerce and Centre for Business Information Ethics, Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan

    Kiyoshi MURATA

Quotations

Quotations

1.1 Quotation 1

小生の事の学というは、心界と物界が相接して、日常あらわる事という事も右の夢のごとく[…]。心界が物界と雑りて初めて生ずるはたらきなり。[…] 事にはそれぞれ因果のあることと知らる。(明治26年12月21日、河出文庫62、平凡社7巻145)

1.2 Quotation 2

今の学者(科学者および欧州の哲学者の一大部分)、ただ箇々のこの心この物について論究するばかりなり。小生は何とぞ心と物とがまじわりて生ずる事(人界の現象と見て可なり)によりて究め、心界と物界とはいかにして相異に、いかにして相同じきところあるかを知りたきなり。(明治26年12月21日、河出文庫63、平凡社7巻146)

1.3 Quotation 3

上の図は網の目のごとく、二集まって一となり、一散じて二となるように、二倍ずつのものとせるが、実はこれどころのことではなく、下の図のごとく、レースをあんだように、百集まりて一となり、また分かれて百となるようなものと見れば、大いによく分かるなり。(明治27年3月3日、文庫p146–147、平凡社7巻 210–212)

1.4 Quotation 4

不思議ということあり。事不思議あり。物不思議あり。心不思議あり。理不思議あり。大日如来の大不思議あり。予は、今日の科学は物不思議をばあらかた片付け、その順序だけざっと立てならべ得たることと思う。(人は理由とか原理とかいう。しかし実際は原理にあらず。不思議を解剖して現像団とせしまでなり。[…])(明治36年7月18日、文庫295–297、平凡社7巻364–365)

1.5 Quotation 5

さて物心事の上に理不思議がある。[…] さて妙なことは、この世間宇宙は、天は理なりといえるごとく(理はすじみち)、図のごとく(図は平面にしか画きえず。実は長、幅の外に、厚さもある立体のものと見よ)、前後左右上下、いずれの方よりも事理が透徹して、この宇宙を成す。その数無尽なり。故にどこ一つとりても、それを敷衍追求するときは、いかなることをも見出だし、いかなることをもなしうるようになっておる。[…] 諸事理の萃点ゆえ、それをとると、いろいろの理を見出すに易くしてはやい。(明治36年7月18日、文庫297、平凡社7巻365)

1.6 Quotation 6

すなわち四曼荼羅のうち、胎蔵界大日中に金剛大日あり。その一分心が大日滅心(金剛大日中、心を去りし部分)の作用により物を生ず。物心相反応動作して事を生ず。事また力の応作によりて名として伝わる。 […] いろいろの順序で心物名事の四つを組織するなり。[…] 右のごとく真言の名と印は物の名にあらずして、事が絶えながら(事は物と心とに異なり、止めば断ゆるものなり)、胎蔵大日中に名としてのこるなり。これを心に写して生ずるが印なり。故に今日西洋の科学哲学等にて何とも解釈しようなき宗旨(クリード)、言語(ランゲージ)、習慣(ハビット)、遺伝(ヘレジチー)、伝説(トラディション)等は、真言でこれを実在と証する、すなわち名なり。(明治36年8月8日、文庫338–339、平凡社390、往復書簡333–334)

1.7 Quotation 7

因はそれなくては果がおこらず。また因異なればそれに伴って果も異なるもの、縁は一因果の継続中に他因果の継続が鼠入し来たるもの、それが多少の影響を加うるときは起、(甲図。熊楠、那智山にのぼり小学校教員にあう。別に何のことなきときは縁。)(乙図。その人と話して古撃剣の師匠たりし人の聟ときき、明日尋ぬるときは右の縁が起。)故にわれわれは諸多の因果をこの身に継続しおる。縁に至りては一瞬に無数にあう。それが心のとめよう、体にふれようで事をおこし(起)、それより今まで続けて来たれる因果の行動が、軌道をはずれゆき、またはずれた物が、軌道に復しゆくなり。予の曼荼羅の「要言、煩わしからずと謂うべし」というべき解はこれに止まる。(明治36年8月8日、文庫340、平凡社391, 往復334)

1.8 Quotation 8

今日の科学は数を基として至ってたしかそうにいう、しかし数もまた定まらぬものなることをいえり。[…] 数というもの、今の科学者の思うほどたしかなものにあらず。事物を宇宙の一分一局にて測ることとなるが、実は事物によりて存するものなり。[…] 事物の根本にあらずして、その外を性質づける(クオリファイ) […] 数の外に確精なる事相なしというは早計もまたはなはなだしというべし。今日の科学は数で量れぬものを度外視す。(臭、味のごとき、その学なし。数で計ることならぬゆえなり。されど、臭にいろいろあり。味にもいろいろあるなり) これにて今日の科学の不満足なるを知るべし。[…] 科学家の弊は万事科学科学いうて、科学で分からぬことをはうそのようにいうにあり。すなわち世界は器械にして、人間は動物なり、道徳もなにも虚偽なりというようなことになりたり。(明治36年8月8日、文庫344–345、平凡社393–395)

1.9 Quotation 9

故に、今日の科学、因果は分かるが(もしくは分かるべき見込みあるが)、縁が分からぬ。この縁を研究するがわれわれの任なり。しかして、縁は因果と因果の錯雑して生ずるものなれば、諸因果総体の一層上の因果を求むるがわれわれの任なり。(明治36年8月8日、文庫341、平凡社391–392)

1.10 Quotation 10

10を3にて除するに3.33333333 + 乃至幾億万回を重ぬるも極処に到らず、到らぬが、二回は一回より、三回は二回より実境に近くなる。3.3へ3を乗ずる(9.9)より3.33へ3を乗ずる方(9.99)が百分の九だけ10に近くなる。人のこの世にあるは安心を好む。安心は愉快の極なり。安心に等差あり。9.9の安心あり。9.99の安心あり。また9.999 + の安心あり。いまだ10に至らずといえども、安心深きものほど10の安心に近し。(明治35年3月22日、文庫234、平凡社7巻316)

1.11 Quotation 11

宇宙万有は無尽なり。ただし人すでに心あり。心ある以上は心の能うだけの楽しみを宇宙より取る。宇宙の幾分を化しておのれの心の楽しみとす。これを智と称することかと思う。[…] 今の学者が世界中のみな哲学者になる世を望むも、実は書籍多くよみ脳に不用のことをつめこむにあらず。自分の境に応じて宇宙無尽蔵の事相を一班なりとも心に考察して楽しむを望むに外ならざるべし。(明治36年6月30日、平凡社329–330, 往復書簡275)

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SATO, M. (2019). Minakata Kumagusu – Ethical Implications of the Great Naturalist’s Thought for Addressing Problems Embedded in Modern Science. In: LENNERFORS, T., MURATA, K. (eds) Tetsugaku Companion to Japanese Ethics and Technology. Tetsugaku Companions to Japanese Philosophy, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59027-1_5

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