Abstract

This article focuses on the reality of the ‘glass ceiling’ metaphor, the invisible barrier that women experience in their upward career mobility which prevents them from reaching the top of an organization. The first part describes the origins and development of the concept. Next, the debate concerning the existence of a specific male or female leadership style has been broadened to an analysis of the context of leadership. As part of that, the phenomenon of ‘tokenism’ is analyzed. The few women that succeeded in breaking through the glass ceiling often arrive in a token position. Persons in leadership positions who belong to a minority group, are looked at as representing the whole of the minority group. Specific personal competencies, characteristics and activities are relegated to the background. The presupposed male/female stereotypes dominate the relationships. How can effective leadership be realized if someone functions as a token? Not only women, but also people belonging to ethnic minorities can be confronted with token positions.Diverse factors of influence such as the choices made by women themselves and the organizational structures and cultures are described. An organizational culture is difficult to describe, and so is the impact on the career growth possibilities and upward mobility of women. Some strategies for change are presented. In order to make these strategies operational, a clear distinction between three dimensions has to be made: an analysis of the numerical proportion of male to female employees, an analysis of the organizational culture, and a gender analysis in terms of content . Different policy instruments can be used: legislation, equal opportunity and positive action programmes, and mainstreaming programmes. The whole debate about gender and leadership is a debate about value options and value preferences