I discuss my long-term observation that history of science in Islamic societies is marginalized within the general history of science community as well as in the academic world of Islamic studies, Near Eastern language and civilization programs, Middle Eastern history, or the investigation of the modern Muslim world. I ask what the possible causes for this situation are and what can be done to change the bleak situation.

Orta Çağ’da, İslam düşüncesi içerisinde yazılmış olan İbn Sînâ’nın eş-Şifâ: İlahiyat’ı, Gazzâlî’nin Makâsıdu’l-Felâsife’si ve İbn Rüşd’ün, Aristoteles’in eserlerine yazmış olduğu şerhler gibi pek çok felsefî ve teolojik eser Latinceye çevrilmiştir. Söz konusu çeviri eserler vasıtasıyla, İslam düşüncesinde carî olan, Tanrı’nın tikelleri kendi zatlarında bilip bilmediği, Tanrı’nın zatı gereği fiilde bulunup bulunmadığı, din ve felsefenin uzlaşıp uzlaşmayacağı gibi tartışmalı pek çok mesele Batı’ya intikal etmiştir. Bunlara ilaveten Tanrı’nın mutlak kudretinin alanının ne olduğu sorunu da Batı düşüncesinde bilinir hale gelmiştir. Bu çalışmada, (...) “Tanrı mantıksal olarak mümkün olanı yapabilir ve bu durum Tanrı’nın mutlak kudretine halel getirmez” anlayışının Latin Batı dünyasına İbn Sînâ’nın eş-Şifâ’sı ve Gazzâlî’nin Makâsıdu’l-Felâsife’sinin çevrileri vasıtasıyla intikal ettiği ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. Tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla, Gazzâlî’nin Makâsıdu’l-Felâsife’de bu konuya ilişkin serdettiği fikirler ile Hristiyan teolog/düşünür Thomas Aquinas’ın fikirleri arasında önemli ölçüde benzerlik söz konusudur. Söz konusu benzerlik temele alınarak, Thomas Aquinas’ın bu hususta İslam düşüncesinden beslendiğini söylemek kuvvetle muhtemeldir. (shrink)

In contemporary political discourse, the "clash of civilizations" rhetoric often undergirds philosophical analyses of "democracy" both at home and abroad. This is nowhere better articulated than in Jacques Derrida's Rogues, in which he describes Islam as the only religious or theocratic culture that would "inspire and declare any resistance to democracy". Curiously, Derrida attributes the failings of democracy in Islam to the lack of reference to Aristotle's Politics in the writings of the medieval Muslim philosophers. This paper aims to analyze (...) this gross misconception of Islamic philosophy and illuminate the thoroughgoing influence the Muslim philosophers had on their Christian successors, those who are so often credited as foundations of Western political philosophy. In so doing, I compare the ideal states presented by Averroes and Dante – in which Aristotelian influence is intimately interlaced – and offer an analysis thereof as heralds of what we might call the secularization of the political, inspiring those democratic values that Derrida believes to be absent in the rich philosophy of the Middle Ages. (shrink)

The human soul is the subject of debates in numerous scientific disciplines. Philosophical considerations encompass a special dimension of the human soul that is related to ontological truths. Among different philosophical questions raised regarding the human soul, the issue of innate ideas particularly stands out. Well-known points of disagreement between Plato and Aristotle regarding this question are usually focused on whether a person possesses knowledge and thoughts from their creation, i.e. birth, or they acquire them through time and experience. With (...) the appearance of Cartesian scepticism and following the solutions Descartes offered for the problem of certain knowledge, the issue of innate ideas has remained the focal question for many prominent philosophers. In the Islamic philosophy, the rational explanation of the nature of innate ideas originates from the more comprehensive theory of the human soul and it states that a person, according to their nature, possesses already existent cognitive abilities they were born with. Innate cognitive abilities discussed in the Islamic philosophy do not refer just to theoretical, but to practical knowledge, as well. Therefore, the analysis of innate ideas in the works of Muslim philosophers is connected to a larger number of scientific disciplines than when it comes to most Western philosophers. The difference between the practical and theoretic intellect will serve as a cognitive basis for defining another aspect of innate ideas. The products of a practical intellect, the human will and his actions, are personal and particular and, therefore, can be connected to the everyday life of a person. Owing to the general presence of the practical intellect in all life spheres, the influence of innate ideas, which are determined in a human being, is recognizable in all most detailed moments of their life. (shrink)

El concepto de la forma divina del ser humano es mencionado en varias descripciones en las tres religiones abrahámicas mayores. El enfoque tradicional judeocristiano de Imago Dei (La imagen de Dios) tiene tres perspectivas principales: sustantiva, funcional y relacional. Ibn ‘Arabī, como pensador y místico musulmán, explicó esta idea a través del concepto de espejo y otros dos conceptos, a saber, el ‘Hombre Perfecto’ y la vicegerencia de Dios. Consideró la forma divina del ser humano como un espejo a través (...) del cual Dios se manifiesta. Este artículo ofrece una visión general comprensiva de la interpretación de Ibn ‘Arabī a la luz de los enfoques judeocristianos. La explicación de Ibn ‘Arabī incluye tres enfoques. A través del concepto del hombre perfecto, la explicación de Ibn ‘Arabī se acerca a la interpretación sustantiva, y a través del concepto de vicegerencia, revela la interpretación funcional. El artículo reconoce una interpretación relacional de la forma divina a través de algunas explicaciones contradictorias que pueden hallarse en sus libros. Este análisis de su explicación también arroja bastante luz sobre aspectos de su perspectiva antropológica. (shrink)

A major conceptual dynamic in all major religious traditions is the need for purification and transformation of the individual in order to effect integration and maturation of the personality in the divine. Although the means by which this purification takes place differs according to the cultural and religious configurations of any given tradition, nevertheless a recurring image is that of an inner and outer odyssey. A major example is the threefold path of John of the Cross, which presents a psycho-spiritual (...) journey by which 'divine osmosis' can be realised, passing through the 'dark night of the soul', and culminating in 'spiritual marriage'. Although not accepted by many theoreticians and practitioners of mysticism, nevertheless the value of the Sanjuanist schemata still holds sway in contemporary society. (shrink)

Statements on issues in biomedical ethics, purporting to represent international interests, have been put forth by numerous groups. Most of these groups are composed of thinkers in the tradition of European secularism, and do not take into account the values of other ethical systems. One fifth of the world’s population is accounted for by Islam, which is a universal religion, with more than 1400 years of scholarship. Although many values are held in common by secular ethical systems and Islam, their (...) inferences are different. The question, “Is it possible to derive a truly universal declaration of biomedical ethics?” is discussed here by examining the value and extent of personal autonomy in Western and Islamic biomedical ethical constructs. These constructs are then tested vis-à-vis the issue of abortion. It is concluded that having a universal declaration of biomedical ethics in practice is not possible, although there are many conceptual similarities and agreements between secular and Islamic value systems, unless a radical paradigm shift occurs in segments of the world’s deliberative bodies. The appellation “universal” should not be used on deliberative statements unless the ethical values of all major schools of thought are satisfied. (shrink)

The purpose of this study is to examine the statements of Ibn al-ʿArabî regarding religions and beliefs through the perspectives of William Chittick and Reza Shah-Kazemi comparatively. Even though his expressions are occasionally elaborated in the light of the theory of the religious pluralism based on Western-Christian thought, by considering the universal message of the Qur’ān Chittick and Shah-Kazemi identify these expressions with “universalism.” This universalist approach bases on the distinction between “ontological will” and “religious will,” and “submission” which is (...) the substance of the term “islam.” While Chittick and Shah-Kazemi agree on issues mostly, it is possible to see that in some sense they differ from each other in their departure points and results. From this perspective, it is going to be seen that Ibn al-ʿArabî’s expressions encompass both the divine religions and other religions which do not have a revelation. To examine Ibn al-ʿArabî’s expressions by taking into account the propositions of the religious pluralism will be helpful to comprehend his outlook on the Qur’ān and the Prophet Muhammad. (shrink)

This paper discusses the sufi concepts which tackle metaphysical and theosophical issues. They imply that a great part of theosophical and metaphysical traditions within Islamic philosophical thought is inspired by original concepts dating from the formative period of sufism. Those concepts were the result of transcribing a mystical experience. Their essence can be best described as a reflection on the nature of love and realization in poems by Rabia el-'Adeviye, Hallaj, Dhul-Nun, Muhasibi and other sufis. Sufis' views on the nature (...) of comprehension and love are more profound in later philosophers and theosophists to be deemed initiators of various philosophical notions such as, for example, philosophy of light, philosophical intuitionism and high theosophy. Hence in this paper we aim to illustrate the internal connection between teachings of the following sufis and philosophers-mystics: Ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, Shihabuddin Yahya Suhrawardi and Ibn Arabi among others, and this will create a substantial metaphysical and theosophical reference work. Owing to these (and many other) philosophers, sufism is joined with philosophy or, more precisely, it creates its philosophy which undoubtedly deserves its own entity by means of its approach to the issue of realization and reality or to the being. (shrink)

Islamism may already be showing signs of meeting a more powerful ideological force: state nationalism. Islamists devote far more energy to attempting to take over existing states than to attacking the West. It is conceivable that, as with Pan-Arabism before it, the grandiose ideals of Islamism will be no match for the economic, military, and media might of the nation-states into which both Arabs and Muslims are separated. These appear to shape people's identity even more than do their potentially revolutionary (...) shared religious tenets. (shrink)

Rooted in a tradition of thought and spirituality akin to, yet other than, the onto-theology of the Latin West, the aesthetico-theological experience of the Byzantine icon can help articulate aesthetic and numinous elements of our relation to nature that environmental philosophy should no longer ignore. In contrast to the technical mastery of the natural in Western art inaugurated by the Renaissance, itself related to the emerged technological mastery of nature in the late Middle Ages, the iconic sensibility characteristic of the (...) Byzantine East exhibits an experience of materiality common to non-Western humanity, seeing nature as a visible window to the invinsible, a lintel of the holy. A series of correlations between features of iconic seeing and exemplary encounters with the natural environment by prominent naturalists elaborates this thesis, along with examples from the later writings of Dostoevsky, who looked to divine beauty to save the earth. (shrink)

Although modern civilization has brought about great technical achievement, mankind face various problems today. It seems that humans are endlessly pursuing economic development, and they often neglect the preservation of the environment. Japan is not free from this world-wide problem. However, Japanese civilization would be able to offer an important paradigm for the future course of mankind. In particular, animism and tolerance towards religious differences seem to be vital elements for the betterment of this world.

رویکرد نصر به مسالۀ رابطۀ علم و دین، از زاویۀ کلامی سنت‎گرایانه، نوین است. وی با استفاده از یک رویکرد درون‎دینی، با روش تاویل آموزه‎های ادیان و گزاره‎های فلسفی و عرفانی سنت‎های مختلف، در پی آشکارسازی دیدگاه حقیقی دین و سنت، و گرایش‎های معرفتی درون آن در باب خدا، انسان، و جهان بر می‎آید و از این رهگذر، نه تنها درصدد نشان دادن سازگاری دین با نظریات علمی نیست، بلکه تقابل دیدگاه علمی رایج را با دیدگاه دینی نشان می‎دهد. از (...) نظر وی علم واقعی و حقیقی در سازگاری با معرفت حقیقی دینی است. پیونددهندۀ معرفت حقیقی و یقینی علمی و دینی و زمینه‌ساز گفتگو میان آن دو، متافیزیک یا معرفت قدسی است که ابزار آن شهود عقلی می‏باشد. گفتگوی عناصر مثبت و یقینی علم جدید با دین در چارچوب متافیزیک میسر است و بدین ترتیب می‏توان از علم مقدس سخن گفت. با نگاهی نقادانه باید گفت از نظر وی وظیفۀ علم آن است که اطلاعات و شناختی از همۀ ابعاد و مراتب موجودات در اختیار انسان قرار دهد و الهیات باید پرتو وحی را بر مشاهدات این جهان بشر بیفکند؛ یعنی بین شناخت‎های بشری و وحی الهی ارتباط و اتصال برقرار گرداند. اما عبارات نصر در برخی مواضع موهم این معنا است که علم و دین واجد کارکرد یکسانی هستند. انتقاد دیگر این است که با در نظر گرفتن رویکرد کل‎گرایانۀ نصر به علوم جدید در نامقدس دانستن ماهیت آن، به دلیل جوهری بودن یافته‎های مشاهداتی و عرضی بودن یافته‎های شهودی در آن، و نیز لحاظ اینکه وی نتایج و یافته‎های مثبت و حقیقی علوم جدید را در چهارچوبی متافیزیکی مشروع می‎داند، این نتیجه استنباط می‎شود که حتی در صورت برقراری چهارچوب متافیزیکی بر نتایج مثبت و حقیقی علوم جدید، باز هم علوم جدید نامقدس‏اند، هرچند یافته‎هایی حقیقی باشند. در اینجا به نظر می‎رسد ملاک نصر در مقدس شمردن عناصر علمی با اشکال جدی مواجه است، و نمادگرایی قرون وسطایی را، که مانع جدی در راه پیشرفت علمی بوده است، القاء می‎کند. (shrink)

The relationship between reason and sharia has been one of the most important and controversial issues among religious thinkers. The main question of this article is "What is the effect of Ibn Rushd on Ibn Maimon in using reason in Shari'a?" Some of the points that we achieved in this research indicate the deep influence of Ibn Rushd on Ibn Maimon in the discussion of reason and Shari'a. In various passages of his works, Ibn Rushd warns of the dangers of (...) pure rationalism and restricts its use in sharia. He believes that the intellect alone cannot interpret and should be done by the people of Shari'a with the conditions explained in religion. Ibn Maimon also states that the use of reason in the sharia is conditional and believes that the Bible of Judaism sets the standard for the use of reason in the Shari'a, which is done by the people of the sharia. In applying the views of Ibn Rushd and Ibn Maimon, we encounter reasons that emphasize the influence of Ibn Rushd on Ibn Maimon in this issue. (shrink)

This study analyses the historical evolution of contemporary Muslim controversies over the historical roots of extremism by applying qualitative content analysis to relevant Qur’ānic verses, prophetic traditions and offerings from early schools of Islamic thought. The study begins by defi ning Arabic term ghulūw with regard to religious extremism and then briefl y introduces manifestations of the phenomenon from the days of Prophet Nūḥ to Jewish and Christian enthusiasts. The paper discusses impacts of extremist thinking on early Muslims with a (...) focus on Kharijite and Muᶜtazilite schools and other related sects. In addition, a discussion of the misuse of certain terms and related legal rulings addresses fi ve matters of importance: [1] matters signifi ed by specifi c appellations, errant legal rulings and consequences; [2] extremist doctrines; [3] extremist religious discourses; [4] rebuttal of errant doctrines; and [5] implications of extremist designations and rulings. (shrink)

Researchers here at this point to define the relationship between the government actions and the process of scientific activities. It can be also narrated in this way: How do politician’s attitudes, policies and decisions impact the scientific arena? In common wisdom, the functions of science and thinking in a closed society with a closed government is absolutely affected and is therefore canalized in the best case and even nonexistent as a result of suppression of free, independent thoughts in the worst (...) scenario. In this paper we shall look at the relationship between Islam, science and government in Iran from a historical perspective. We will shall by looking at science in Iran in the ancient period, in the Middle Age after the advent of Islam, and finally in the modern period. (shrink)

The question of perception constitutes one of the most complex and important sections of philosophical psychology. Unlike the Intellectual perception $, which met with more or less agreement among philosophers, particular perceptions and more specifically, sensory and imaginal perception were felt to be problematic. How do these kinds of perception occur and what is their reality? Is there any difference between particular and universal perceptions? This study deals with these problems from the standpoint of Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi, one of the (...) greatest Islamic philosophers in the 16th and 17th century, whose work in this field is barely known. Comparing Mulla Sadra's contribution with that of his predecessors from both the Peripatetic and Illuminationist Schools, namely Ibn Sina and al-Suhrawardi this thesis attempts to explain what Mulla Sadra has offered as new ideas and new analyses in this regard. "The immateriality of perception," "unification of the subject and the object" and "the role of the soul in particular perception" are the main issues that are dealt with in this thesis. (shrink)

Early and modern scholars have deliberated extensively on the principle of wasaṭiyyah with its various interpretations. Yet, the term has not been perceived through the Sharī‘ah point of view, and there is no study which directly relates it with the objectives of the Sharī‘ah. This paper, therefore, examines the necessity of wasaṭiyyah from the perspective of the Sharī‘ah. It aims at highlighting the principle of wasaṭiyyah as one of the objectives of Sharī‘ah. In doing so, the Qur’ānic and prophetic texts (...) dealing with the principle of wasaṭiyyah along with the views of early and modern scholars are examined. In addition, this paper also examines some approaches of wasaṭiyyah by Muslim reformists. They demonstrated the different manifestations of wasaṭiyyah and its signifi cance in accordance with the needs and circumstances of the society. Based on the signifi cance of wasaṭiyyah, this paper concludes that it can be considered as one of the fundamental principles of the Sharī‘ah. In other words, the principle of wasaṭiyyah should be acknowledged as a higher objective of the Sharī‘ah which must be obtained at both the individual as well as the collective level. (shrink)

The distinguishing feature of Iqbal's poetry is his "conscious concerns" about issues vital to the Ummah. These concerns also provide the key to understand the psycho-dynamics of Iqbal's mind and help us to appreciate the reasons for which his poetry has become meaningful for the Ummah. Iqbal's poetry has to be considered as "contemplative or higher poetry" in that the response is born of his intellect. Iqbal is a poet of "intellectual conception" and "intuition expression" wherein the inner meaning dominates (...) totally over the form. The "vital operation" of which Iqbal's poetry is a manifestation is an intellectual conception born of the poet's wisdom. (shrink)