Haber-i vâhidin delil değeri problemi, 2. (8.) yüzyıldan itibaren kelamcılar (:Mutezile), fıkıhçılar ve hadisçiler arasında tartışılan ve hakkında kayda değer bir literatür ortaya çıkan usûlî konuların başında gelmektedir. Şeybânî (ö. 189/805), Şâfiî (ö. 204/820), İsâ b. Ebân (ö. 221/836) ve Buhârî (ö. 256/870) gibi sünnî ekolün tanınmış fıkıh ve hadis alimlerinin haber-i vâhid lehine ortaya koydukları çalışmalar bu noktada oldukça etkili olmuştur. Bu etkinin bir sonucu olarak başlangıçta haber-i vâhidi toptancı bir yaklaşımla reddeden Mutezili isimler, yerini zamanla Ebû Ali el-Cübbâî (...) (ö. 303/916) gibi başka bir delille desteklenmesi şartıyla kabul eden alimlere bırakmıştır. Cübbâî, muhtemelen Kitâbü’l-ahbâr isimli günümüze ulaşmayan çalışmasında, hem tek kişinin haberi anlamındaki haber-i vâhidin hücciyet delillerini tenkit etmiş hem de çeşitli delillerle kendi kişisel görüşünü temellendirmeye çalışmıştır. Onun bu tenkit ve görüşleri, 4. (10.) yüzyılın önemli Hanefi fakih ve usulcüsü Cessâs (ö. 370/981) tarafından usul ilminin kurucu metinlerinden el Fusûl’de üstü kapalı bir şekilde nakledilmiş ve eleştirel bir değerlendirmeye tabi tutulmuştur. Araştırmamızda Cübbâî’nin, haber-i vâhidin delil değeri, kabul şartları konusundaki eleştiri ve görüşleri ile Cessâs’ın ona verdiği cevaplar ve karşı eleştirileri ele alınmıştır. (shrink)

Bayʿ al-wafā is a fatwa issue (waqıʿat/nawazil) in the form of a legal solu-tion (hīla al sharʿiyyah), the legal nature of which was intensely debated by Central Asian Hanafi jurists. This contract appears to be a practice by which Muslim communities living in Central Asia, particularly in Bukhara and Samarkand, were able to conduct their debt relations without involving interest. The initial assessments regarding the legal nature of bayʿ al-wafā, for which there is no transmission from the founding imams, emerged (...) in the fatwas of Central Asian Hanafi scholars in the 4th/10th century. Subsequently, from this century, when the first examples of fatwa literature were penned, to the 6th/12th century, when the most advanced and influential examples were produced, there were many different opinions on the legal nature of this contract according to the Hanafī doctrine. In this study, based on the fatwa literature that emerged between these centuries, the chronological development of opinions on the legal nature of the bayʿ al-wafâ contract has been examined. Furthermore, this study also addresses the fundamental trends that have led to different assessments on the subject and identifies the subordinate and opposing views concerning it. (shrink)

This study examined the validity and reliability of a Turkish version of the Modified Moral Sensitivity Questionnaire for Student Nurses. After obtaining permission to adapt the MMSQSN into Turkish, the translation/back-translation method was used with expert opinions to determine content validity. Factor analysis was conducted to examine the construct validity and test–retest was performed on the questionnaire to determine reliability. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to assess for internal consistency. Participants included 272 baccalaureate degree student nurses who took ethics lessons (...) prior to their clinical internship. The factor analysis revealed that even though the factor structure in the original scale was the same, relevant items were categorized with similar components, and factor loads were sufficient. The correlation coefficient in the analyses of test–retest scores was.66 for the total scale and the Cronbach’s alpha was.73 for the total scale. The translated MMSQSN is a valid and reliable measure of ethical sensitivity in student nurses in Turkey. (shrink)

La lutte contre le terrorisme constitue un des axes de la politique étrangère des États. La France mène, ces vingt dernières années, une politique correspondant aux recommandations officielles élaborées par les hauts fonctionnaires du Quai d’Orsay. Or, loin d’une culture commune partagée par tous, la vision du terrorisme des diplomates français révèle plusieurs temporalités subjectives fondées sur des interactions qui les structurent et dépendent de processus de reconnaissance et de son déni entre acteurs sur la scène internationale. Les croyances philosophiques (...) permettent de repérer les temporalités subjectives à travers des systèmes de croyances concurrents parmi les diplomates français. Ils permettent également de cerner la césure suivante : un temps de « longue durée », propre à l’État et ses représentants ; un temps cyclique et court, propre au terroriste qui est mis à l’écart de la longue durée. Cette césure temporelle se traduit ainsi par l’esquisse d’une typologie entre temporalités « hubristique » et « civilisatrice », qu’on attribue aux catégories des énarques et des cadres d’Orient. Elle révèle enfin l’influence de ces conceptions temporelles sur les orientations stratégiques de l’État pour répondre à la violence terroriste. (shrink)

Gathering information about theological Islamic dissidents/sects and classifying and listing them in various ways as a literary genre in Islamic literature has been of interest to Muslim scholars as a result of scholarly curiosity or in the aim of criticizing and refuting their ideas from a certain ideological and theological point of view. After especially taking the ḥadīth saying that the Muslim community will divide into 73 sects as a main reference, heresiological classifications or lists became more systematic and schematic. (...) These heresiological classifications or lists are in fact mostly different attempts in terms of material, method and style. This enables to determine and offer possible traditions of classifying and listing sects based on the similarities, differences and connections among them. This dissertation that examines heresiological classifications and lists that emerged in particularly seven centuries after the hijra and appeared in books of various literary genres tries to identify their characteristics and historical development, and categories them according to their methods, scopes, styles and contents in order to reach a holistic understanding. Also it offers possible traditions for heresiological classifications or lists after analysing and comparing the available ones. (shrink)

Explaining moral intuitions is one of the hot topics of recent cognitive science. In the present article we focus on a factor that attracted surprisingly little attention so far, namely the temporal order in which moral scenarios are presented. We argue that previous research points to a systematic pattern of order effects that has been overlooked until now: only judgments of actions that are normally regarded as morally acceptable are susceptible to be affected by the order of presentation, and this (...) in turn is only the case if the dilemma is immediately preceded by a dilemma in which the proposed action was considered as not morally acceptable. We conducted an experiment that largely confirmed this pattern and allowed us to analyze by what individual level responses it was generated. We argue that investigating order effects is necessary for approaching a complete descriptive moral theory. Furthermore, we discuss the implications of these findings for moral philosophy. (shrink)

This study was part of a larger cross-national research project at the Norway’s University of Bergen, which involved participants from over 30 countries. This undertaking delves into developmental assets, creativity, and thriving, and the part they play in determining mental health. Thus, this study examined the developmental assets, creativity, thriving, and their importance to mental health in a sample of Malaysian emerging adults. This study was based on a sample of 394 undergraduate students, comprising 264 females and 130 males, ranging (...) between the ages of 18 and 26 years. Two subscales of the Reisman diagnostic creativity assessment were used to measure creativity. Meanwhile, thriving indicators of Search Institute were used to measure thriving while the short form of the mental health continuum for adolescents was used to measure mental health. An online Google form was used to collect data from university students enrolled in both public and private universities. The correlation analysis results revealed that all the variables were positively correlated to each other and that the relationship between development assets, creativity, thriving, and mental health ranged from weak to moderate. Multiple regression analysis produced four models that indicated that positive identity, support, creativity, and thriving have a significant influence on mental health among emerging adults. Further, analyses using the PROCESS procedure demonstrated significant indirect effects of positive identity and support on mental health through its effects on creativity and thriving. As such, it is our recommendation that mental health practitioners tailor their treatment approach to include positive identity, support, creativity, and thriving in their sessions with Malaysian emerging adults. (shrink)

The increasing number of companies providing internet services and auction tools helped popularize the online reverse auction trend for purchasing commodities and services in the last decade. As a result, a number of owners, both public and private, accepted the online reverse auctions as the bidding technique for their construction projects. Owners, while trying to minimize their costs for construction projects, are also required to address their ethical responsibilities to the shareholders. In the case of online reverse auctions for construction (...) projects, the ethical issues involved in the bidding technique directly reflects on the owner’s ethical and social responsibilities to their shareholders. The goal of this paper is to identify the shareholder ethics and responsibilities in online reverse auctions for construction projects by analyzing the ethical issues for the parties involved in the process. The identification of the ethical issues and responsibilities requires clear definition and understanding of professional ethics and the roles of the involved parties. In this paper, first, the concept of professional ethics and social responsibility is described in a general form. To illustrate the ethical issues and responsibilities, a sample case of bidding for a construction project using online reverse auction techniques is presented in which the shareholders were actively involved in questioning the ethical issues. The issues involved in the bidding process and their reflection on the shareholder responsibilities are described and analyzed for each stage of the process. A brief discussion of the overall process is also included to address the general ethical issues involved in online reverse auctions. (shrink)

Sheikh Halid Sufi, as a Sufi poet, addresses human being as the main subject of his sufist dicourse. He is an important figure of our recent history as he primarily adopted the goal of human perfection and revealed a doctrine of humanity in the school of knowledge. In advance of our current century, when human is seen just in physical respect, he lived as a man of heart who handled human being with an integrated approach within the aspects of matter (...) and spirituality, the world and the hereafter, individual and community, body and soul. In this communiqué, I will discuss Sheikh Halid Effendi’s ontology and his point of view on the place of human being in the realm of existence. He seeks human perfection and wishes people to free themselves of shabby desires and regain their disposition. He recommends people to achieve purity in order to reach the rank of being a mirror to God’s reflections. As a Sufi poet, he attaches importance to carrying out the education of divine journey, wrapping up in mystical ethics, having the identity of wisdom and gaining the aesthetics of love so as to reach the perfection. SUMMARY Sheikh Mehmed Halid was born in 1273/1856 in Sivas. He graduated from Ottoman Junior High School. He attended the 1893 War. In 1880, he started his professional career at a state office. Until 1899, he served in several positions, as assistant judge in Erbaa Lower Court, as Prosecuting Deputy Attorney in Sivas, as Prosecuting Judge assistant in Lower Court and head clerk in Darende, as head clerk in Lower Court in Tonus/Altınyayla, and as prosecuting judge in Kuruçay. He died in 1931 and was buried in Sivas Yukarı Tekke Graveyard. Sufism (tasawwuf) is an education for integrity towards maturity, in a way to prufiy the self from evils of nafs (self) and to reach the love of Allah. This spiritual educational journey is called ‘Seyr-u Suluk’. Sheikh Mehmed Halid completed his Seyr u Suluk as a dervish (student) of murshid (mentor) Kastamonulu Ganizade Mehmed Sadık Baba. Sheikh Mehmed Halid wrote three books called Hilafetnāme, Mektubāt, and Divan. He deals with issues of Sufism (mysticism) in these works. Primarily, his works dwells into the matters of morals, worship, good manners (adab), customary practices, ingenuity, existence, and love. Sheikh Mehmed Halid’s sole attempt is to explain the relationship among Allah, man and universe in an understandable way. According to Sheikh Mehmed Halid’s conception of Sufism, existence is unique and that existence is only Allah. The existence of Allah is absolute while the existence of assets is relative. Things do not exist on their own. Universe is like a mirror. What is reflected in the mirror of universe are the shadows of Allah the Omnipotent. The graces of The Divine are reflected in this mirror. All the things that exist in the universe proves the Self of Allah and his properties. Each of the things in the universe are the words of Allah. The existence of the universe is a result of Allah’s mercy. Man is the fruit of the tree of the Universe.Man is both the embodiment and the reflection of Allah. We want to discuss the position of man in between Allah and the universe with Sheikh Halid’s verses. Perceiving plurality in unity and unity in plurality, Sheikh Mehmed Halid attributes the variety of things and existence in the universe to the Divine beauties of Allah. For those who can comprehend, the plurality/ abundance in existing objects in the universe indicates singularity and uniqueness of Allah. According to Sheikh Halid, Allah is independent from and beyond all the entities that exist in the universe. However, Allah, manifests Himself in the things that he creates and the actions he takes through His divine names and properties. According to Sheikh Halid, each object is a reflection of Allah’s divine properties. Every entity in the universe glorifies Allah with all their existence. For Sheikh Halid, Seyr u Suluk is the journey from weakness to perfection, from substance to meaning, and from things to reality. Considering Seyr u Suluk education as distancing one’s self from other beings, reaching purity of heart, disposing of all signs explains these concepts with pilgrimage metaphor. As a response to those who asks him what he meant by seyr u suluk, he says seyr u suluk is servitude and submission to Allah. In order for Seyr u Suluk to be meaningful, a person should enter the way of a murshid-i kāmil (perfect religious mentor), and should have sincerity, purity (being deprived of all sins) and dhikr. According to Sheikh Halid, someone who is not in trouble is not given a remedy. So as to bother is necessary for remedy to be arisen. Nuisances of the universe are also ephemeral as the universe itself. Therefore, it is unnecessary to bother things that are ephemeral. Because remedy is not available without being mature. According to Sheikh Halid, the procedure of gaining advantage from being mature; getting rid of the ego, feeling the love, being pioneer of the mission, being modest, to attain soul pleasure, escaping from fame, leaving the claim, the glory of salvation, proceeding dhikr, reaching the conquests and escaping from friendship of worldly things. According to Sheikh Halid, being mature is not setting about affiliation ceremony. Asceticism cannot be a show and claim authority. Sincerity is needed on the basis of seyr u suluk education. Asceticism which is an effort of making the religion a specific of Allah is to make intimacy with Allah. Sheikh Halid wants his murids who take part in ṭarīqa (sufī path) to decide on the sincerity. Sincerity is said to be the unique factor that makes sense the membership. Seyr u suluk which begins with being membership of mature murshid, which makes sense with proceeding worship and respecting the sincerity arises by teaching manners to soul. Seyr u suluk is trying to reform the soul. Teaching manners to soul is a challenging and significant task. The most important factor that ensure teaching manners to the soul to be achieved is dhikr. Dhikr practice which makes successful the teaching manner to the soul of seyr u suluk training increases the prudence and foresight of dervish. The unique task that murshid expects from his murid during the membership process is to adjust his soul and parlance to the dhikr of Allah. Dhikr of Allah is a product of fondness. According to Sheikh Halid, one who wants to be remembered in heaven should himself learn to remember Allah. Sheikh Halid gives too much importance to disciplining the tariqa where sufi training takes place. A murid should qualify his murshid whom he intimated to. Followers should gain sufficient advantage from the spiritual atmosphere in the dergāh of their murshid. The murid must be at the service of the murshid who trains him and should obey tariqa manners. Salik who achieves seyr u suluk, who maturates the sufi ethics and who gains sincerity through dihkr of Allah tries to achieve the Gnosis. The intent of being a human is to know Allah. The biggest disaster for human is to come upon unawareness. Sheikh Halid who assumes the the Arifs as sultans of walayah makes a comparison between the Arifs and the Zahids and prefers the Arifs. He thinks that the Zahids pay attention to the appearance, cannot reach the basis and cannot go beyond Allahliness show. Sheikh Halid, who encourages the Zahids to avoid comparing themselves with the Arifs, warns the ones who combat with the Arifs and reminds that Allah proclaims warfare to those who has hostility towards those surrendering themselves to Allah. Sheikh Halid lines up the ways of being mature and having wisdom as godly grace, asceticism, love, the mind of leaving, battle with the self, humility, dikhr and being woeful. Salvation process which Marifetullah will guide is to achieve the love of Allah. Love is the way of achieving the reunion. The reality can just be gained through love. However, gaining the divine love requires to be loved. Because, the way of gaining the divine love is to remove everything except Allah from one’s heart. (shrink)

In this article, it is often pointed out to a more specific area by using the term Ṣūfi art on the basis of the aforementioned understanding. Thus, an analytic approach is adopted along with the usage of deductive method, and a layer of meaning is tried to be established through criticism and analysis. Firstly, a basic framework was constructed by mentioning the origins of Ṣūfi art. Then the attention was drawn to the sacredness included in Ṣūfi art in terms of (...) its historical frame and ontological structure. It is asserted that Ṣūfi art is based on four basic arguments: beauty, creativity, transcendence, and imagination. Ṣūfis considered art as an activity of beauty and the expressive power of it. Relying on the basic motive that Allah is the Greatest Artist, the Ṣūfis believe that the beauty of their art is a manifestation of Divine Names. They saw art as an expression of manifestation and unveiling. The Ṣūfis, who deemed the world in terms of Divine Beauty (Jamāl), witnessed the manifestations of the Divine Attribute of Beauty in all things; as a result of this witnessing, the masterpieces of Islamic art came into existence. It is the sapiental and the gnostic outlook that underlies this success of the Ṣūfi orders (tariqa) in Islamic history. In Ṣūfism, the perfection (kamāl) presupposes the beauty (jamāl); and each beauty presupposes also the perfection. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish beauty from perfection in the Ṣūfi art. The sense of loving the beauty is so strong for them that they have tried to reflect the perfect beauty they witness in their works of art, to give an external presence to the phenomenon of beauty and to make the spiritual reality visible that is innate within their beings. Ṣūfism is in a sense an effort to seek beauty. It has been an endless longing to seek, search and witness The All Beauty, that is God Himself. The effort to search for Divine Beauty is sometimes revealed by tune, and sometimes by harmonious words or by a single line. Then, they turn into music, poetry, calligraphy and illumination. According to the maxim stating “There is a path from heart to heart”, these works were transmitted from one generation to another, ensuring the continuity of this Divine tune. Despite the fact that Ṣūfi works make no pretensions to be art as such, they were widely accepted, influenced the masses and gained appreciation in that they were created by people with a sincere heart, intimate sentiments and a deep world of contemplation. The second stage of the gnostic dimension in Islamic arts has been tried to be expounded through the ultimate goal of Ṣūfi art. In Ṣūfi tradition, the aesthetics and sensitivity of art attract attention at every opportunity, but the Ṣūfis did not consider art as their main aim. For them, art denotes only a means. Ṣūfis, who appeal to the eyes, ears and mind with the artistic forms, endeavoured to permeate to the hearts with the spiritual atmosphere provided. With their performances, exuberance and success in different branches of fine arts, they mobilized the aesthetic sentiments in each person's nature and ensured that the human pleasure become accorded with the divine pleasure. Focusing on the sapiential and gnostic dimension of Islamic arts, the basic principles of Ṣūfi art are emphasized as the third stage. It is also suggested that these principles also have a religious content are marked with religious style, have a strong sense of sacredness, possess generality and the peculiarity, have symbolic and representative aspects, are based on symbolism and have traditional characteristics, their style of expression is based on revelation, and are not intended to provoke carnal desires. As to the fourth remarkable factor within the sapiential and gnostic dimension of Islamic art, the Ṣūfi worldview behind the mentioned artistic works is given. As to the fifth remarkable factor in the gnostic dimension of Islamic arts, the thought behind the world of art sustained in the dervish lodges (tekke) is discussed. These dervish lodges were emphasized as the most important places where the beautiful word, beautiful sound and beautiful line converge and these lodges were evaluated as the kitchen where the fine arts were prepared and as the boiler where the arts are cooked. It is due to these features that each of the dervish lodges in Ottoman Empire became a kind of education and fine arts centre. In these lodges, many musicians, composers, poets, illuminators, bookbinders, carvers, engravers and marbling masters were trained. While the dervishes in the dervish lodges exhibited their own unique works of art, they also carried out the requirements of their spiritual trainings (sayru sulūk). (shrink)

In the present study, inspired by the studies in the literature, we consider Min matrix and its Hadamard exponential matrix family whose elements are Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind. Afterwards, we examine their various linear algebraic properties and obtain some inequalities. Furthermore, we shed light on the results we obtained to boost the clarity of our paper with the illustrative examples. In addition to all these, we give two MATLAB-R2023a codes that compute the Min matrix and the Hadamard exponential (...) matrix with Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind entries, as well as calculate some matrix norms. (shrink)

Qādī Burhaneddin, who died in 1358 at the age of 54 after living a stormy life, came out of many wars and distinguished as the most active name among Anatolian seigniors. He was called ‘the father of conquest’ because of this striking feature. Qādī Burhanuddin is a sharp-witted and fair scholar with dignity, tireless and never afraid to say the truth. Although he is said to be debauched and wassailer, he is mostly known for his kind-heartedness, cheerful nature, pleasant disposition, (...) magnanimity, benevolence.and intimacy with the clergy. He became prominent in his struggle for the sake of Allah, took the plunge in this cause and gave away constantly in the service of God. Has adopted quite a close manner towards clergy and found great pleasure in conversing with them. He organized discussions with them three days a week, did not defect in respect of scholars visiting him and displayed just and compassionate relation with his community. Serving as a Qādī, he was a powerful figure belonging to the branch of ulema, and known for his mystical temper as well as jurisprudential mastery. When we examine his symbolic expression in poetry, we can see the depth of mystical meaning in many couplets that seem to be unsophisticated. Even not being a Sufi himself, Qādī Burhaneddin is prone to mysticism and closely affiliated with Sufis. (shrink)

The contemporary Qur’anic studies have been marked by amazing development. Various methods and approaches to understand the Qur’an are offered by the scholars. One of the prominent figures in this field is Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd. Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd (1943–2010 M) is a highly controversial contemporary thinker. He is an Egyptian scholar who is accused of being apostate, because of his theory of qur’anic hermeneutic (the textual of Qur’an). This is reflected in his stances towards contemporary religious discourse and (...) the approach to reading religious texts, especially the Quran, which requires reading according to a hermeneutic mechanism. His books ‘Naqd al-Khitab al-Dini (Criticism of Religious Discourse)’ and ‘Al-Takfir fi Zaman al-Takfir (Thinking in the Time of Atonement)’ caused a great uproar in the early nineties of the last century. Abu Zayd was accused of criticising atheists because of their stances on the text. Therefore, this study aimed to discuss Abu Zayd’s position on contemporary religious discourse and his new approach to reading religious texts, and also aims to discuss why Abu Zayd’s theory has been string up Islamic world and ending by his expulsive from his native country. To deal with this problem, this article discusses Abd Zayd’s biography and some cultural framework of his people. The methodology of Qur’anic hermeneutic is the least his. Having examined the topic, the author finds that Abu Zayd believes that modem literary theory and criticism denote the way to understand and interpret the Qur’an ‘objectively’. The contribution of this research is discussing Abu Zayd’s contemporary religious discourse and his new approach to reading religious texts. Contribution: The contribution of this research is discussing Abu Zayd’s contemporary religious discourse and his new approach to reading religious texts. (shrink)

This essay studies some of the poetic devices employed by Osundare to project social commitment and vision in Songs of the Marketplace. It examines how the poet’s deployment of style makes his poetry more accessible to a larger audience than that of his predecessors. Like the oral traditional performance, his poetry employs rich Yoruba oral literary devices in a way that is unique and glaringly innovative. Osundare’s radical poetic style has a clearly defined concept and role. It is also central (...) to the resolution of the polemics of governance and politics in society. The pervasive theme of the collections remains a serious concern for hope out of the decadent situation that has eaten deep into the fabric of our social existence. (shrink)

There is a confusion over and inchoate understanding of how the past is made understandable through postmodernist historical orientation. The purpose of the article is to outline the characteristic features of the postmodernist movement in social sciences, to explain its confrontation with history, to document its critique of the conventional practice of history, and to discuss its implications for history education. The postmodernist challenge to the foundations of the discipline of history is elucidated with an emphasis on its epistemological underpinnings. (...) Implications of postmodernism for the teaching and learning of history are discussed. (shrink)

Müslümanlar 8. yüzyılın başlarından 897/1492’e kadar Endülüs’te siyasî varlıklarını devam ettirmişlerdir. İber Yarımadası’ndaki Müslümanların ilk devleti olan Endülüs Emevî Devleti'nin 422/1031’de yıkılmasından sonra, çok sayıda şehir devleti kurulmuştur. Mülûku't-tavâif denilen bu küçük şehir devletleri, 5/11. yüzyıl sonlarında Hıristiyan güçler karşısında zaman zaman yok olma tehlikesi yaşamışlardır. Bu durum karşısında Mağrib'teki Berberî asıllı Murâbıtlardan yardım istemişlerdir. Mağrib’ten gelen yardımlar sonucunda Endülüs’te 483/1090 yılından itibaren Murâbıtlar, ardından 541/1147'den sonra da Muvahhidler hâkimiyeti başlamıştır. Muvahhidlerin 7/13. yüzyıl başlarında yıkılmasıyla Endülüs’te yeniden Mülûku’t-tavâif dönemi ortaya (...) çıkmış ve kısa zaman içerisinde Benî Ahmer dışındaki devletler yok olmuştur. Bu devlet, yaklaşık iki buçuk asırlık dönem boyunca ayakta kalmayı başarmıştır. Bu dönem boyunca da diğer devletlerle farklı yönlerden temaslarda bulunmuştur. Gırnâta Sultanlığı’nın en yoğun ilişki içerisinde bulunduğu devletlerden biri de, Mağrib’te, Cebelitârık Boğazı’nın güneyinde yer alan Merînîler Devleti olmuştur. Muvahhidlerin haleflerinden olan bu devlet, kendisini Endülüs cihadı açısından da onların varisi olarak görmüştür. Endülüs’te Hıristiyan güçlere karşı devam eden mücadelede de Merînîler ve Benî Ahmer genellikle işbirliği içinde olmuşlardır. Muvahhidlerin ardılı olan bu iki devlet, din, dil, kültür, soy olarak da ortak özelliklere sahiptiler. Öncelikle savunma amaçlı askerî zeminde başlayan ilişkiler, bununla sınırlı kalmamış, farklı alanlarda etkileşimlerle devam etmiştir. Bu çalışmada Benî Ahmer ve Merînîler devleti arasındaki çeşitli ilişkiler ve etkileşimler ele alınacaktır. (shrink)

In this article, a new adaptive fuzzy wavelet neural network model is proposed for nonlinear function approximation problems. The AFWNN model is based on the traditional Takagi-Sugeno-Kang fuzzy system. Specifically, this model replaces the membership functions of fuzzy rules with wavelet basis functions, which are known to have time and frequency localization properties, i.e., they can approximate patterns both in the time and frequency domains. The structure of the AFWNN model is derived from that of the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system. (...) However, the AFWNN improves over the ANFIS by replacing Gaussian functions in the hidden layer with wavelet basis functions. The AFWNN model is trained using a gradient-based optimization algorithm. The AFWNN is then tested on three function approximation problems of time series prediction. For certain types of nonlinear time series, for instance fractal processes, the AFWNN is found to be substantially more accurate than alternative methods. (shrink)

Since the middle of this century, the dominant prescriptive approach to decision theory has been a deductive viewpoint which is concerned with axioms of rational preference and their consequences. After summarizing important problems with the preference primitive, this paper argues for a constructive approach in which information is the foundation for decision-making. This approach poses comparability of uncertain acts as a question rather than an assumption. It is argued that, in general, neither preference nor subjective probability can be assumed given, (...) and that these need to be generated by using the relevant information available to the decision-agent in a given situation. A specific constructive model is discussed and illustrated with a real example from this viewpoint. (shrink)