This article provides a comparative analysis of the attitudes of three major monotheistic religions – Judaism, Christianity and Islam – to the practice of usury and looks at why these attitudes developed in different ways. Each of the parts presents the opinions of one of the religious systems, analysing the Old and New Testaments, as well as the Koran, by looking at the duties that the Holy Scriptures required of their followers. The first part is devoted to Judaism. According to (...) this model, the moral value of usury was dependent on the ethnic and religious origins of the borrower probably because of special historical and cultural associations between the idea of money and the Jewish people. The second part is concerned with usury in Christian religion, presenting the attitude expressed in the Gospel, as well as later comments of Fathers of the Church, in order to put the change in moral attitudes to usury in its historical context. Finally, the article presents the point of view of Islam devoting particular attention to the historical reasons for the development of its specific attitude to usury, but also outlining contemporary solutions adopted in the present-day Islamic world. (shrink)

The act of consuming in our new, global reality doesn’t have a lot in common with taking part in the classic ‘purchase and buy’ exchange relationship. The satisfaction of basic needs is no longer the main target of consumption. The contemporary consumer experiences a constant “hunger” and continual need for new objects and impressions, which is almost impossible to alleviate. It can cause frustration deepened by the feeling of spiritual emptiness. The article or the service itself becomes a fetish, indicating (...) a change in relations between the object and subject. This is related to the revelation of a new dimension of consumption, which itself starts taking on the features of the sacrum. The act of shopping takes on a similarity to certain more sacral rituals. The „puzzle” of sales, special offers and special occasions such as holidays, Christmas, Valentine's Day, Mother’s Day etc, are the remains of the liturgical year. The impression of “sacralized consumption” is experienced in even greater depth when you step inside what has become known as the “new temples of consumption”, which take on the physical shape of the perfect space, full of harmony, where everything is fully controlled and totally safe, out of the context of time and place. The model of contemporary consumption gives a promise of immediate happiness and salvation, distracting the consumer from reality and giving him an ersatz of the medicine needed to treat his existential fears. Most members of Western society now accept this situation by taking part in it. The question is when they will start to reject those individuals who refuse this lifestyle and accuse them of acting against moral standards and the common good? (shrink)

Author: Bogaczyk Małgorzata Title: THE DIFFERENT ART. ON THE PRIMITIVE ART, NAÏVE ART AND ART BRUT (Sztuka Inna. O sztuce prymitywnej, naiwnej i surowej) Source: Filo-Sofija year: 2006, vol:.6, number: 2006/1, pages: 239-256 Keywords: DIFFERENT ART, PRIMITIVE ART, ART BRUT, NAÏVE ART Discipline: PHILOSOPHY Language: POLISH Document type: ARTICLE Publication order reference (Primary author’s office address): E-mail:In the sketch I show some similarities in the artist’s way of perceiving the work of art, the process of artistic creativity, and the (...) fate of work in the inner reality, to quote Proust. The fact that all art is met with wider or narrower reception is the background for my analysis of the general phenomenon of the popularity of art fascinating or being rejected because of its variety. (shrink)

Patterns of inattention in children: Findings from the inattention checklist for teachers This study concerns construction of a checklist for teachers designed to find out types of attention disorders in children. Inattention is not a homogenous phenomenon. Patterns of coexistence of inattention signs and other behavioral symptoms could reflect different psychological mechanisms. In first study teachers described 242 children aged 9 to 10 using Inattention Checklist for Teachers. In second study teachers described 361 children aged 8 to 10 using modified (...) version of the ICT. Factor analysis conducted in the first study resulted in extraction of five factors. In the second study previously extracted factors were validated by cluster analyses and profiles referring to co-occurring behavioral symptoms were developed. Analysis of profiles has shown that attention disorders comprise at least two groups of inattention symptoms that in relation to other factors and learning difficulties constitute different patterns of inattention. It is suggested that these patterns reflect differences between attention disorders caused by cognitive malfunctioning, impaired behavioral or emotional control. (shrink)

Według Arystotelesa szczęście jest osiągalne, bo jest dziełem człowieka; takim działaniem, którego,,po co” osiągane jest równocześnie z nim samym: wtedy, gdy działanie jest właśnie dokonywane. Odpowiedź natomiast na pytanie, jakie to jest działanie, związane jest z ontologią życia człowieka, ze sposobem, w jaki winno być dokonywane, aby było sobą. I by sobą był człowiek. Związane jest zatem z odpowiedzią na pytanie, kim jest człowiek i jakie jest jego miejsce pośród innych bytów, a przede wszystkim jakie jest jego odniesienie z jednej (...) strony do innych istot żyjących – roślin i zwierząt, z drugiej – do Boga. Usytuowanie człowieka w pewnego rodzaju,,pomiędzy” określa sposób jego życia, a więc także działanie, które ów sposób bycia najlepiej charakteryzuje. Problematyka szczęścia człowieka najlepiej zaś owo,,pomiędzy” wyraża i naznaczona jest jego ambiwalencją, dźwiga jej brzemię. (shrink)

In meinem Referat werde ich an das philosophische Problem der Ewigkeit der Welt anknüpfen. Wenn wir dieses Problem philosophisch betrachten, müssen wir uns auf das frühe Stadium der Weltevolution ziehen, d.h. auf das „präphysische" Stadium. Als „präphysisch" bezeichne ich das Frühstadium der kosmologischen Evolution, das angesichts der damaligen extremen Verhältnisse durch begründete fundamentale Theorien der gegenwärtigen Physik, wie Quantenmechanik, Relativitätstheorie oder Thermodynamik nicht zu beschreiben oder zu erklären ist. Heute kennen wir nur die obere Zeitgrenze dieses Stadiums, die sog. Plancksche (...) Schwelle, die 10~^3 s. beträgt. Das Hauptproblem im Prozess der ontologischen Charakteristik dieses Stadiums ist der Versuch, seine untere Zeitgrenze festzulegen. Mit diesem Problem ist nämlich eine der ältesten und viel diskutierten philosphischen Fragen verbunden, und zwar das Problem der Ewigkeit der Welt und : (1) das Problem des Zeitraums des „präphysischen" Stadiums (es geht um das Festlegen seiner unteren Zeitgrenze - dauerte es unendlich lang oder aber nur einen winzigen Sekundenteil?), (2) ist der Anfang der Zeit (falls es ihn gäbe) zugleich der Anfang der Welt?, (3) bildet der Grosse Ausbruch den absoluten Anfang der Welt oder nur den Anfang eines von mehreren Stadien in ihrer Evolution, (4) setzt die Möglichkeit des absoluten Anfangs der Welt unbedingt die Kreation Gottes voraus (die supranatürliche Kreation) oder läbt eine Möglichkeit die Entstehung der Welt auf eine natürliche Weise zu (die natürliche Kreation), (5) das Problem des „sonderlichen" Moments. Alle diese Fragen, stelle ich auf der Basis der neueren Errungenschaften der Physik und Kosmologie dar. (shrink)

Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, USA, mathias_risse{at}ksg.harvard.edu ' + u + '@' + d + ' '//--> It is a widespread view that support for Fair Trade is called for, whereas agricultural subsidies are pegged as unjustifiable. Though one supports farmers in developing countries while the other does the same for those in already developed ones, there are, nonetheless, similarities between both scenarios. Both are economically `inefficient', upholding production beyond what the market would sustain. In both cases, supportive arguments (...) can assume two forms. First, such arguments might draw on normative claims made by producers. In the case of agricultural subsidies, farmers in developed countries assert claims against their fellow citizens, who ought to accept redistributive measures to keep them in business. In the case of Fair Trade, the claim can be made by farmers in developing nations against consumers, who ought to pay higher prices to keep them in business (under conditions deemed acceptable). Second, arguments to keep producers in business might be presented as the prerogative of both groups: even if farmers in developed countries did not have a claim to be kept in business, these countries would have the right to take measures to do so because they value their products. In the case of Fair Trade, even if farmers in developing nations had no claim against consumers, it is a consumer prerogative to pay more to keep them in business because they value their product or the process of producing it. There are, of course, differences between these scenarios as well, but in light of these parallels in the moral cases for subsidies and Fair Trade, it will be illuminating to examine the arguments for and against subsidies and Fair Trade together. Key Words: trade • subsidies • fairness • markets • development. (shrink)

ABSTRACTThe present study was designed to address the hypothesis that differences and similarities in patterns of attentional processing in recently proposed types of anxiety and depression are connected with the dominant function they play in stimulation processing and their structural components. Participants filled out the Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire, which assesses types of anxiety and depression, and completed the Emotional Faces Attentional Test one week later. The obtained results confirmed our prediction and suggested that the proposed typology of anxiety and (...) depression is valid in the adaptive meanings of both phenomena. (shrink)

Accountants recently had the opportunity to celebrate 20 years of existence in Poland the regulating of accounting. The act was adopted by parliament in 1994. 500 years before the treaty about double accounting was reprinted by Pacioli. The edition of Tractatus XI. Particularis de computis et scripturis was an (epic) epoch-making event designating the beginning of a new field of economic sciences. The idea of the double accounting was known before, not only because of Pacioli, but also through Cotruglio, who (...) described it 36 years earlier. Recently in accounting, as well as in the broadly understood economy, there is a particular emphasis put on ethics, moral values and professional attitudes. It is worth considering whether and on what scale they were present in the early works of Accountancy 550 years ago, how their representatives approached the subjects the beginning of a written history of accounting. The article presents the main ideas included in the guidelines Pacioli and Cotruglio regarding double accounting, and identifies if ethical guidelines were presents among others guidelines. It turns out that the author of the essential work in the history of accounting, as well as its predecessor, devoted much attention to the moral attitude of the merchant, his appropriate behavior, attitude towards customers and other people, with whom he has a business relationship. (shrink)

Proposing his conception of narrative identity in Oneself as Another, Paul Ricœur holds that human life is comprehensible, once the story of a man’s life has actually been told, and it is the narrative of one’s life which constructs one’s identity. Developing his theory of heteroglossia and the polyphony of human speech, explicated chiefly in Speech Genres and The Dialogic Imagination, Mikhail Bakhtin recognizes the intrinsically intertwining character of utterance and response. According to him, utterance is always addressed to someone (...) and antedates an answer. Bakhtin’s “addressivity,” as well as his view of discourse as fundamentally dialogic, are convergent with Ricœur’s elucidation both of man’s answerability to the Other and of narrative identity. The dynamic character of narrative identity, as construed by Ricœur, converges with the dynamic nature of language as viewed by Bakhtin. The aim of this article is to study the intersections of Ricœur’s narrative theory and Bakhtin’s recognition of the polyphonic nature of speech. I view these as inherently interrelated, and as testifying, respectively, to the philosophical and linguistic aspects of one and the same phenomenological vision. That vision accounts for selfhood, understood as vulnerable and contextualized, while also recognizing that it is conveyed by means of language with its essentially dialogic openness. (shrink)

Proposing his conception of narrative identity in Oneself as Another, Paul Ricœur holds that human life is comprehensible, once the story of a man’s life has actually been told, and it is the narrative of one’s life which constructs one’s identity. Developing his theory of heteroglossia and the polyphony of human speech, explicated chiefly in Speech Genres and The Dialogic Imagination, Mikhail Bakhtin recognizes the intrinsically intertwining character of utterance and response. According to him, utterance is always addressed to someone (...) and antedates an answer. Bakhtin’s “addressivity,” as well as his view of discourse as fundamentally dialogic, are convergent with Ricœur’s elucidation both of man’s answerability to the Other and of narrative identity. The dynamic character of narrative identity, as construed by Ricœur, converges with the dynamic nature of language as viewed by Bakhtin. The aim of this article is to study the intersections of Ricœur’s narrative theory and Bakhtin’s recognition of the polyphonic nature of speech. I view these as inherently interrelated, and as testifying, respectively, to the philosophical and linguistic aspects of one and the same phenomenological vision. That vision accounts for selfhood, understood as vulnerable and contextualized, while also recognizing that it is conveyed by means of language with its essentially dialogic openness. (shrink)

Niniejszy artykuł traktuje o możliwościach i powinnościach procesu nauczania fonetyki na polskich uczelniach wśród studentów germanistyki. Zważywszy na bardzo dobrą podstawę poprawnej wymowy, jaką jest korzystna baza artykulacyjna Polaków, jak też rónorodność metod, które powinny być stosowane podczas uczenia fonetyki, nie ulega wątpliwości, że studenci są w stanie sprostać bardzo wysokim wymaganiom stawianym przez wykładowców. Zawarta w artykule baza pojęciowa jest jedną z metod, które winno się wykorzystywać, aby osiągnąć rzeczony cel. A zatem obok nader świadomej artykulacji niemieckich głosek na (...) zajęciach fonetyki na kierunku germanistyki jest również miejsce dla dwóch kolejnych zdecydowanie bardziej praktycznych metod. Chodzi tu oczywiście o metodę werbo-tonalną oraz metodę zmierzającą do automatyzacji jedynie okazyjnie poprawnie artykułowanych głosek. (shrink)

The study examines the question of how personal self-esteem, collective self-esteem and readiness for self-improvement are linked to satisfaction with life in women from countries differing with regard to level of collectivism. Our study participants were Polish and Indian female students. The obtained results indicate that personal self-esteem plays a very important role in satisfaction with life of women from the two countries. However, collective self-esteem is not directly related to satisfaction with life among women from the two cultures analyzed. (...) Structural Equation Modeling showed that: a) in the Indian group readiness for self-improvement is more important for satisfaction with life than in the Polish group and it is significantly related to satisfaction with life through collectivistic self-esteem, b) the direct influence of both personal and collective self-esteem on satisfaction with life is more significant in the Polish group than in the Indian group. (shrink)

This paper presents the aspect of the dynamics of the verb valency and discusses the question of valency grammar. There are two primary conditions that cause the valency to change: grammatical and contextual. The point of this discription is to define changes of valency and to rank them in order to simplify the use of German constructions.

This article deals with the dichotomy of static and dynamic valency. Although the attribute static means constancy and characteristic dynamic is most associated with changeability and variantibility, both types of verbal valence show fixed and variable aspects. Quite obviously this is related to the specificity of valency – to its multilayered qualities. This paper presents attempts to show in what sense static valency implies variantibility, and what fixed and what variable aspects are included in dynamic valency.

In his article untitled Messages in Art Jerrold Levinson discusses the idea of a message behind a work of art. He argues that despite certain disclaimers put forward by artists it is „hard to deny that artworks (...) very often do have messages, and far from inexpressible ones”. From given examples it would seem that Levinson assumes that musical work just as other artworks sometimes generate messages and that in order for a work of music to be successful in expression (...) this message should be comprehensible and certainly not incoherent. The author of this paper draws on Levinson's “Messages in Art” as well as his “Music as Narrative and Music as Drama” to explore further the issues mentioned above. In particular the author argues that seeing musical works through the message it may generate is somewhat reductive and that musical work as well as other artworks are prone to abiding by an aesthetic code and therefore even when they allow for interpretation in terms of messages or morals these messages are incoherent or vague at best. (shrink)

Is Gilles Deleuze’s concept of virtuality sufficiently close to the concept of virtuality used in informatics and the philosophy of information for computer-created objects and virtual reality to justify the latter’s explanation by means of the former? This question is the main objective of the present paper. We aim to show that, contrary to its most widespread interpretations, the Deleuzian conception of virtuality is epistemological and not ontological, and that this invalidates the belief that Deleuze’s virtuality and that of computer (...) science are sufficiently close to justify the transposition of one to the other. (shrink)

Mainstream environmental groups have long been criticized by more radical activists as being too willing to compromise with industry and development interests. Radical groups such as Earth First! and Earth Liberation Front were formed as a reaction explicitly against perceived failures of mainstream groups. Although the radical activism employed varied from direct action in the form of aggressive civil disobedience coupled with eco sabotage, the tactics of the radical groups suggest two strands of movement. For example, the actions and demands (...) of Earth First! seemingly fit their conviction that compromise is a betrayal of their moral convictions and results only in further deterioration of environmental protection, and the radical activism of this group can be seen to fit well within historically accepted norms of protest movements within constitutional democracies. In contrast, Earth Liberation Front does engage in what might be called ecoterrorism, a form of political violence. This article addresses the following emerging questions: Is an uncompromising approach an effective strategy for radical environmental activism in fostering positive environmental change? What is required of constructive democratic action? Can radical environmental activism be a resource for cooperative practices and coalition building? These questions relate to ecological justice, which is growing in importance as a paradigm that combines social concerns about the environment with issues of nature protection, thereby underlying the need for coordination of strategies and cooperation in order to bring about a positive change In this paper, we examine the positions and arguments of some radical environmental activists and their detractors, and analyse their moral beliefs and political attitudes. We claim that “No Compromise” is not an acceptable strategy for environmental activism. In the analysis that follows, we are not suggesting naively that only warm fellow-feelings, congeniality, and an overt willingness to compromise are reasonable responses to powerful contravening force. We argue instead that when used, strong - and even perhaps sometimes illegal - direct action can be conceptualized and carried out in a way that does not hinder all opportunities for effective compromise, coalition building, and the like, that are ultimately essential elements of most successful protest movements. We build on Martin Benjamin’s claim that compromise need not always involve moral capitulation or failure, but can be integrity-preserving. It can, we believe, be an effective means of moving a pro-environmental agenda forward. Key to our argument are the distinctions between moral and political compromise, and the interrelations between moral and political community. Seeing oneself as a part of a larger community in which decisions must be made, and recognizing responsibility towards the members of a moral community is essential to a full appreciation and effective use of compromise. These considerations are anchored in an approach that constructively links participatory democracy and radical activism. (shrink)

The author concentrates on the problem of dishonest approach to the responsibilities of the scientist and the scholar. She focuses on unconscionable uses of language in scientific publications resulting in making lies. The term ‘lie’ is so used as to refer to any utterance which is put forward under a pretence of making a scholarly statement, if that statement contains false sentences which have been put in deliberately. Different techniques of lying are reviewed: making blatantly untrue statements, concealment of the (...) truth, linguistic manipulations in descriptions and explanations aimed at producing false impressions. The author asks the question, who lies more often, the people who belong to the elite or those who remain in the social peripheries? The answer is qualified by a further distinction which separates moral peripheries from institutional peripheries. (shrink)

Let Rhoda Speak Again: Identity, Uncertainty, and Authority in Virginia Woolf's The Waves Performing a rereading of Virginia Woolf's 1931 experimental modernist masterpiece of The Waves, in this article I focus on the elusive and conflicted character of Rhoda, whose significance has been either overlooked or marginalized in the available criticism of the narrative. By pointing out a number of problems in the existing scholarship devoted to Rhoda, I propose to define her as a transgressive figure of uncertainty through which (...) Woolf develops a critique of the unitary self. My point of departure for the following essay is Toril Moi's perspective on Woolf's oeuvre as openly feminist and deconstructive. Consequently, I begin with Moi's emphasis on Woolf's commitment to the problematization of the Western male humanism's underlying concept of the unitary self. Drawing from a number of critical and philosophical perspectives, I turn to Kim L. Worthington's idea of subjectivity as a sustained process of interpersonal narrativization in order to offer a more nuanced account of Rhoda's identity as compound and implicated in the dynamics of inter-subjective processes. I also consider Rhoda's much criticized rejection of identity vis-à-vis Woolf's strategy of impersonality, and, contrasting it with Maurice Merleau-Ponty's phenomenological concepts of the flesh and anonymous existence, I contend that Rhoda renounces the unitary selfhood, which corroborates Moi's critique of Woolf. Through a close analysis of Rhoda's position versus the other characters, as well as by examining how Rhoda's ego boundaries are delineated in the narrative, I demonstrate that Woolf's conflicted heroine emerges as an astute critic of gendered reality, since she is the one who most acutely feels the dualistic nature of selfhood and it is chiefly through her that Woolf points to the need to overcome this dualism. Shannon Sullivan's feminist revision of the Merleau-Pontian perspective on the anonymity and the body as well as the Deweyan notion of transactionality further helps to elucidate the ways in which Rhoda's experimental and subversive discourse engages in a polemic with the Cartesian conceptualization of identity presupposed on the dualism of mind and body simultaneously inquiring about a possibility of a non-dualistic and non-unitary conception of subjectivity. As a consequence, Rhoda gains authority and agency through uncertainty which prompts her to adopt an uncompromisingly and insistently questioning stance. Finally, I suggest reconsidering Rhoda's suicide as a metaphorical act of ‘distancing,’ as discussed by Zygmunt Bauman, via Adorno, in his 2006 Liquid Fear, another context for approaching Rhoda's uncertainty. (shrink)

The issue how to reduce of tax evasion is widely discussed in the literature. A public authority may affect the behavior of taxpayers, not only through economic factors, but also by strengthen fiscal discipline. In this process especially role play such issues as tax morale, tax mentality and perceived tax justice. The purpose of the study was to identify groups of taxpayers with similar attitudes towards taxes and similar tax behaviors. Cluster analysis elicited four types of tax payers: Intrinsic Tax (...) Payer, External Tax Payer, Intrinsic Tax Evader, External Tax Evader. In the study the most common were the first two types of taxpayers. Elicited types correspond with motivational tax postures identified by Braithwaite and Torgler. The conclusions sum up the key issues discussed, policy implications and the limitation of the analysis. (shrink)

Important positive as well as negative results on interpolation property in fragments of the intuitionistic propositional logic (INT) were obtained by J. I. Zucker in [6]. He proved that the interpolation theorem holds in purely implicational fragment of INT. He also gave an example of a fragment of INT for which interpolation fails. This fragment is determined by the constant falsum (), well known connectives: implication () and conjunction (), and by a ternary connective defined as follows: (p, q, r)= (...) df (pq)(pr).Extending this result of J. I. Zucker, G. R. Renardel de Lavalette proved in [5] that there are continuously many fragments of INT without the interpolation property. (shrink)

We investigate computability theoretic and topological properties of spaces of orders on computable orderable groups. A left order on a group G is a linear order of the domain of G, which is left-invariant under the group operation. Right orders and bi-orders are defined similarly. In particular, we study groups for which the spaces of left orders are homeomorphic to the Cantor set, and their Turing degree spectra contain certain upper cones of degrees. Our approach unifies and extends Sikora’s [28] (...) investigation of orders on groups in topology and Solomon’s [31] investigation of these orders in computable algebra. Furthermore, we establish that a computable free group Fn of rank n>1 has a bi-order in every Turing degree. (shrink)

The author of the paper analyzes John Milton’s great epic narrative through the lenses of Paul Ricoeur’s biblical hermeneutics and his philosophical reflection, in particular the second chapter of the philosopher’s last book, Parcours de la Reconnaissance, devoted mainly to the prospects and pitfalls of recognizing oneself. Two excerpts from St. Paul’s Letter to Romans and the Letter to Corinthians highlight the main points of reference in this argument: the concept of involuntary wrongdoing and the contrast between the present opacity (...) and the projected transparency of the knowing subject, connected with the promise of seeing face-to-face, whose fulfilment is rooted in God’s antecedent knowledge of a human being. It is argued that Ricoeur’s focus on the precarious fate of the “fallible man” and his simultaneous desire to outline the destiny of the “capable man” elucidate Milton’s masterpiece evocations of the Aristotelian anagnorisis in Paradise Lost. (shrink)

Addressing trauma as a phenomenon which happens on the level of the human psyche and body, this article explores the impact of the interlocking nature of human lingual and bodily being in discovering a fuller possibility of interpreting and understanding woundedness. The non-transparent and problematic character of trauma calls for a hermeneutic investigation in order to gain a far-reaching insight into what happens with us and in us in traumatic experience. The imperative to understand the situation of affliction is an (...) unending task which not only relies upon extant understandings but continually pro-vokes new ones. I argue that the process of healing, encompassing the spoken and bodily narrative, does not establish a secure equilibrium, but rather searches for self-restoring, healing energy and commences ever new understandings of what needs to be comprehended and healed. This article offers an examination of trauma as featured in three short stories by British authors: Rudyard Kipling, D. H. Lawrence and James Joyce, to exemplify the possibilities of literature to shed light on the intricate nature of traumatic experience. It interrogates the ways in which literature, hermeneutics and psychoanalysis meaningfully converge. (shrink)

Recently the virtual organization of work has become of crucial significance. The changes in the work environment induced by the Industry 4.0 revolution are also reflected in the emergence of virtual negotiations. New settings impose new challenges not only for negotiators, but also for higher education struggling to provide students with the best opportunities for comprehensive development. Given the applicability of virtual exchange (VE) in business higher education, the main objective of this paper is to present the usefulness of virtual (...) exchange as a tool to boost students’ skills that are necessary for virtual negotiations. Firstly, the concept of the 4th space was applied to compare the context of virtual negotiations and VE projects. Secondly, the learning outcomes of the VE projects were studied from the perspective of the requirements of virtual negotiations. (shrink)

This analysis, reverting to the question of how ethical paragons emerge from situations encountered in war, concentrates on one historical example, the case Boy-Scout Soldiers, their system of values and moral opinions. Szare Szeregi was an educational organization active from September 27, 1939 to January 17, l945 in the General Government and the provinces annexed to the Reich. Its activity was conceived as continuation of the Boy-Scout program. Under military supervision by the Home Army groups of older boys, from Szare (...) Szeregi made part of Raid Formations of the Home Army during the Warsaw Uprising and in battalions Zośka and Parasol constituted their main force. (shrink)