A Estrela da Redenção de Franz Rosenzweig estabelece uma conexão clara entre a questão do Tempo e a questão acerca da Experiência e da Linguagem como atributos fundamentais do ser humano. Tanto do ponto de vista metódico como do ponto de vista do conteúdo, o pensamento do tempo de Rosenzweig distingue-se do de Martin Heidegger, malgrado a sua aparente proximidade. Para Rosenzweig, a caducidade das coisas e a mortalidade do ser humano não são pensados a partir de uma ontologia da (...) finitude, antes se interpretam à luz da leitura judaica do acontecimento salvífico. Ora isto significa que, para Rosenzweig, o ser humano como indivíduo tem a partir da experiência do seu próprio tempo participação nos acontecimentos da Criação, da Revelação e da Redenção. Mais ainda, isto quer também dizer que para o pensador judeu o tempo está sempre de forma inusitada correlacionado com a Eternidade. Ou seja, segundo esta visão, o ser humano transforma-se a si mesmo graças ao acontecimento de salvação em concomitância com a sua própria relação em processo de transformação no que se refere ao tempo e à eternidade. Segundo o autor do artigo, a chave para esta nova compreensão do tempo está numa nova sistemática filosófica, cujo método possibilita a transformação de diferentes tempos, para lá do uso apropriado que Rosenzweig faz da simbologia matemática em ordem a fornecer uma interpretação filosófica da Criação. /// Franz Rosenzweig's Star of Redemption connects the question of time with the question about the experience and the language proper of the human being. In terms of both method and content, Rosenzweig's thinking about time is quite different from the heideggerian approach regardless of the fact that both thinkers also give the impression of being close to one another. But the truth is that Franz Rosenzweig thinks the caducity of things and the mortality of the human being not in terms of an ontology of finitude, but rather interprets them in the light of the Jewish understanding of the event of salvation. This means that for Rosenzweig the human being as individual situated in the midst of time has a direct part in the events of Creation, Revelation and Salvation. In each one of these instances time is shown as being imbedded with eternity, what in each case happens in a very special way. The human being transforms itself in this event of salvation together with his process of relation to time and eternity. The key for this new understanding of time is a philosophical systematic and method that makes possible the transformation of different times, not to mention the characteristic use of mathematical symbology made by Rosenzweig in order to give a philosophical interpretation of Creation. (shrink)

O ponto de partida do presente artigo consiste na afirmação de que as religiões originárias do Próximo Oriente - Judaísmo, Cristianismo, e Islamismo - contêm em si mesmas inconsistências práticas e teóricas. Mais ainda, o autor afirma que estas religiões estão em contradição umas com as outras no que diz respeito a aspectos teológicos essenciais, para além de que entre elas existe um passado de guerra e de conflito. Ora estas são precisamente as razões pelas quais o autor considera que (...) a credibilidade epistemológica e moral destas religiões foi dramaticamente afectada. Daí o principal objectivo do artigo: contribuir para o esclarecimento do modo como Filosofia e Teologia podem cooperar entre si em ordem a uma mitigação destas deficiências. Nesse sentido, segundo o autor, uma e outra devem abraçar a possibilidade de demonstrar epistemologicamente que os conteúdos da revelação do ponto de vista da razão não são nem demonstráveis nem refutáveis, pois esses conteúdos não são proposições científicas acerca de eventos e processos interiores ao mundo, mas apenas a expressão de uma atitude religiosa em relação ao mundo no seu todo (e em relação a Deus). Nessa medida, diz o autor, nada justifica que atitudes religiosas de fé e de amor sejam caracterizadas como 'irracionais', antes a elas se devendo aplicar a designação de 'a-racional' ou simplesmente de 'transracional. Mais ainda, a Filosofia e a Teologia estão em posição de mostrar de que modo atitudes religiosas fundamentais estão construídas umas sobre as outras. Com efeito, básica em todas as formas de religião é uma atitude em relação ao mundo considerado como um todo, tal como se pode encontrar, por exemplo, no Taoismo ou no Zen-Budismo, de modo que aqui não se encontra qualquer forma de crença numa divindade transcendente; ora é precisamente esta atitude que o autor do artigo designa por 'Religiosidade A'. Como 'Religiosidade B', por outro lado, designa o autor toda a atitude religiosa de fundo que transcende o mundo presente e nos remete para a existência de um Deus único e da sua Revelação, tal como é o caso com o Judaísmo, o Cristianismo, e o Islamismo. Aqui, a tarefa consiste sobretudo em clarificar de forma lógica e conceptual a possibilidade de uma auto-revelação divina bem como da sua aceitabilidade nos termos de uma crença humanamente constituída. Finalmente, o artigo refere também aquela que o autor considera ser a 'Religiosidade C', expressão esta que simplesmente denota aquela atitude em que, com base nas premissas presentes nas formas A e B de religiosidade, somos especificamente remetidos para á Revelação cristã, ou seja, para a experiência nos termos da qual se professa a encarnação de Deus em Jesus de Nazaré e se afirma a sua condição de ser expressão do amor incondicional de Deus para com todos os seres humanos. Na verdade, a natureza incondicional deste amor apresenta-se como um escândalo moral diante da auto-compreensão ética da humanidade. Consequentemente, a incompreensibiliâade deste amor não pode ser senão objecto da revelação divina e da pura fé, únicos modos possíveis de ele se transformar numa possível justificação 'moral' dos seres humanos. /// Starting-point of this article is the fact that the religions originated from the Near East - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam - do contain in themselves theoretical and practical inconsistencies. Moreover, they contradict each other in essential theological regards, and they made war upon each other in the past. For these reasons, their epistemological and moral credibility has been dramatically diminished. In this context, the article aims at showing how philosophy and theology might be able to work together in alleviating these deficits. First, they may demonstrate epistemologically that the contents of revelation are neither rationally demonstrable nor refutable because they are not scientific statements upon events and processes within the world but the expression of a religious attitude towards the world as a whole (and towards God). Therefore, such attitudes as religious faith and love shouldn't be designated 'irrational', but rather as arational' or, 'transrational'. Furthermore, philosophy and theology are able to show in what manner fundamental religious attitudes are built upon another: Basic for all higher forms of religion is an attitude towards the world as a whole – as one can find for instance in Daoism or Zen-Buddhism – where there is not yet any belief in a transcendent deity; that attitude is called 'Religiosity A'. So called 'Religiosity B' is a fundamental attitude which transcends this world and refers to a sole God and his revelation as can be found among Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Here, the possibility of divine self-revelation and of its acceptability by human faith has to be clarified logically and conceptually. Finally, 'Religiosity C denotes that attitude which, on the premises of those Religiosities A and B, refers to the specifically Christian revelation which confesses the incarnation of God in Jesus and presents him as the expression of God's unconditional love to all human beings. The unconditionality of this love seems to be a moral scandal to human moral understanding. Therefore, this unconceivable love has to be object of divine revelation and of pure faith so that it might be the basis of all possible 'moral' justification of humankind. (shrink)

Die »Enzyklopädie Philosophie- und Wissenschaftstheorie«, das größte allgemeine Nachschlagewerk zur Philosophie im deutschsprachigen Raum, wurde 1980 begonnen und 1996 mit dem vierten Band abgeschlossen. Sie erschien 2005 bis 2018 in einer komplett aktualisierten und erweiterten 8-bändigen Neuauflage, die hiermit nun in einer kartonierten Sonderausgabe vorliegt. Die »Enzyklopädie« umfasst in Sach- und Personenartikeln nicht nur den klassischen Bestand des philosophischen Wissens, sondern auch die neuere Entwicklung der Philosophie, insbesondere in den Bereichen Logik, Erkenntnis- und Wissenschaftstheorie sowie Sprachphilosophie. Zugleich finden Grundlagenreflexionen in (...) den Wissenschaften und deren Geschichte ausführliche Berücksichtigung. Die umfassenden Bibliographien und Werkverzeichnisse wurden für die 2. Auflage in allen Artikeln auf den neuesten Stand gebracht. Der Herausgeber Jürgen Mittelstraß, Professor em. für Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie an der Universität Konstanz, ist einer der international renommiertesten deutschen Philosophen. 1989 erhielt er den Leibniz-Preis der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) und seitdem zahlreiche weitere Wissenschaftspreise sowie Ehrendoktorwürden. Er ist Direktor des Konstanzer Wissenschaftsforums, war Präsident der Academia Europaea (2002-2008) und Vorsitzender des Österreichischen Wissenschaftsrates (2005-2015). Band 1: A-B | Band 2: C-F | Band 3: G-Inn | Band 4: Ins-Loc | Band 5: Log-N | Band 6: O-Ra | Band 7: Re-Te | Band 8: Th-Z. (shrink)

The article presents the sociology of knowledge approach to discourse (SKAD). SKAD, which has been in the process of development since the middle of the 1990s, is now a widely used framework among social scientists in discourse research in the German-speaking area. It links arguments from the social constructionist tradition, following Berger and Luckmann, with assumptions based in symbolic interactionism, hermeneutic sociology of knowledge, and the concepts of Michel Foucault. It argues thereby for a consistent theoretical and methodological grounding of (...) a genuine social sciences perspective on discourse interested in the social production, circulation and transformation of knowledge, that is in social relations and politics of knowledge in the so-called ‘knowledge societies’. Distancing itself from Critical Discourse Analysis, Linguistics, Ethnomethodology inspired discourse analysis and the Analysis of Hegemonies, following Laclau and Mouffe, SKAD’s framework has been built up around research questions and concerns located in the social sciences, referring to public discourse and arenas as well as to more specific fields of (scientific, religious, etc.) discursive struggles and controversies around problematizations (Foucault). (shrink)

With great sympathy for Roman Ingarden and his work, Edith Stein edited his book project The Literary Work Of Art. In the letters she exchanges with him shereflects on relationship between reality and ideality: she writes that those who do not see the world as a reality must be fools. The political events in the 1930s had an impact on phenomenology. While Edmund Husserl dissociates himself from his protégé Martin Heidegger with regard to the content of his philosophy as well (...) as with regard to his ideology, Edith Stein distances herself more and more from the phenomenological method, seeing it as removed from reality, and she eventually become a Carmelite nun. Roman Ingarden, on the other hand, reconsiders interpreting phenomenology as aesthetic theory. Literature and film are being re-analysed in terms of phenomenological mediality and as factors of human communication. (shrink)

Keine ausführliche Beschreibung für "Reflexion und Gefühl" verfügbar.

This paper puts forward a theoretical framework for the analysis of expertise and experts in contemporary societies. It argues that while prevailing approaches have come to see expertise in various forms and functions, they tend to neglect the broader historical and societal context, and importantly the relational aspect of expertise. This will be discussed with regard to influential theoretical frameworks, such as laboratory studies, regulatory science, lay expertise, post-normal science, and honest brokers. An alternative framework of expertise is introduced, showing (...) the limitations of existing frameworks and emphasizing one crucial element of all expertise, which is their role in guiding action. (shrink)

Pathogenic variants occurring in protein‐coding regions underlie human genetic disease through various mechanisms. They can lead to a loss of function (LOF) such as in recessive conditions or in dominant conditions due to haploinsufficiency. Dominant‐negative (DN) effects, counteracting the activity of the normal gene‐product, and gain of function (GOF) are also mechanisms driving dominance. Here, I discuss a few papers on these specific mechanisms. In short, there is accumulating evidence pointing to differences between LOF versus non‐LOF variants (DN and GOF). (...) The latter are thought to have milder effects on protein structure and, as expected, DN variants are enriched at protein interfaces. This tendency to cluster in 3D space can help improve the ability of computational tools to predict the pathogenicity of DN variants, which is currently a challenging issue. More recent results support the hypothesis whereby cotranslational assembly of macromolecular complexes can buffer deleterious consequences of variants that would otherwise lead to DN effects (DNEs). Indeed, subunits the variants of which are responsible for DNEs tend to elude cotranslational assembly, thus poisoning complexes involving wild‐type subunits. The constraints explaining why the buffering of DNEs is not universal require further investigation. (shrink)

Testis determination in most mammals is regulated by a genetic hierarchy initiated by the SRY gene. Early ovarian development has long been thought of as a default pathway switched on passively by the absence of SRY. Recent studies challenge this view and show that the ovary constantly represses male‐specific genes, from embryonic stages to adulthood. Notably, the absence of the crucial ovarian transcription factor FOXL2 (alone or in combination with other factors) induces a derepression of male‐specific genes during development, postnatally (...) and, even more interestingly, during adulthood. Strikingly, in the adult, targeted ablation of Foxl2 leads to a molecular transdifferentiation of the supporting cells of the ovary, which acquire cytological and transcriptomic characteristics of the supporting cells of the testes. These studies bring many answers to the field of gonadal determination, differentiation and maintenance, but also open many questions. (shrink)

Expression of most genes is regulated by the interaction of multiple transcription factors with cis‐regulatory sequences. Many studies have focused on how changes in promoters and enhancers alter gene expression and phenotype. Recently, Hare et al., using elegant wet and computational approaches uncovered a series of enhancers driving the expression of the even‐skipped gene in scavenger flies (Sepsidae).1 Despite the strong sequence divergence between the enhancers in sepsids and drosophilids, they lead to remarkably similar patterns of gene expression in transgenic (...) Drosophila embryos. This can be explained by the existence of intra‐enhancer compensatory mutations and the presence of overlapping/near binding sites for activators and repressors. BioEssays 30:1052–1057, 2008. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

Der Autor: Reiner Ruffing ist promovierter Philosoph, gibt in der Erwachsenenbildung und an Universitäten Lehrveranstaltungen und ist seit mehr als 20 Jahren Lehrer.

Mehr noch als bei einem anderen Text mag für ein Vorwort gelten, daß die Schwierigkeit darin besteht, alles das, was einem nach Fertigstellung eines Buches zunächst dazu einfällt - und am liebsten würde man nur darüber schreiben! - wegzulassen, um dann dennoch auf einige wenige Punkte zurückzukommen, die der Autor als für das Lesepublikum wichtig erachtet. Mein Interesse für Hellerentstand aus einem universitären Rahmen heraus. Ich kam an der FU Berlin Anfang der 80er Jahre über Svetozar Stojanovic, der einige Gastvorträge (...) am Otto-Suhr-Institut hielt, mit der Philosophie der jugoslawischen "Praxis-Gruppe" in Kontakt, deren Grundlegung eines Hu manistischen Marxismus mich interessierte: Praxis als Schlüsselbegriff, Selbsterschaffung des Menschen, Verbindung von mittelbarer und unmittel barer Demokratie, auch die -wenn auch skeptische -Handhabung solcher wertgeladenen Begriffe wie Entfremdung und deren mögliche Überwindung, das waren, so empfand ich damals, Fingerzeige für einen neuen Dritten Weg zwischen Ost und West, denn die "Praxis-Gruppe" kritisierte mit existentiellem Einsatz den damals bestehenden Sozialismus, ohne das westliche Gesellschaftsmodell zu glorifizieren. Die Ideen der "Praxis-Gruppe" waren nicht eigentlich falsch; aber wahr scheinlich ist es mit Theorien wie mit Lebensaltern: sie haben ihre Phase, dann kommt etwas Neues. Nur daß bei der "Praxis-Gruppe" theoretisch nichts wesentlich Neues mehrkam. Für den an Theorie Interessierten glänztejedoch, aus dem Spektrum des Humanistischen Marxismus hervorkommend, schon bald ein neuer Name, nämlich derjenige von Agnes Heller. (shrink)

Nietzsches Aufforderung Bleibt der Erde treu! aus dem Zarathustra wollte er als eine Art Arznei gegen den drohenden Werteverfall in Europa verstanden wissen. Wie ein Arzt die korperlichen, so versuchte Nietzsche die Ursachen fur die geistigen Leiden in unserer Kultur aufzuspuren. Uberdruss und Langeweile, obwohl es den meisten Menschen in der westlichen Zivilisation nicht schlecht gehe, kamen ihm wie ein Frevel am Sinn der Erde vor. Mit seiner dionysischen Philosophie glaubte Nietzsche das Grundproblem seines Lebens losen zu konnen: wie es (...) namlich moglich sei, trotz der pessimistischen Einsicht in den leidvollen und letztlich unergrundlichen Charakter des Daseins einen praktischen Optimismus zu entwickeln. Im Fokus des Buches stehen so erkenntnistheoretische Aspekte und ihre Bedeutung fur Fragen der Lebensfuhrung. Nach einem Uberblick uber Leben und Werk orientiert sich der Aufbau des Bandes an Nietzsches Hauptbegriffen. Vergleiche mit anderen Autoren machen Nietzsches Philosophie aus dem Kontext heraus besser verstandlich, ein Glossar schlusselt zentrale Begriffe auf. (shrink)

Speaking about the influence Husserl had on his early thinking Heidegger later on always referred to Husserl's 'Logische Untersuchungen', emphasizing the attitude of critical distance he had towards the "Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie" and Husserl's transcendental phenomenology pointed out there. Nevertheless, as shown in this paper, it is evident that in 'Being an Time' Heidegger took over some essential issues from Husserl's later work. But it is also clear that he was also essentially changing their character.

Today political competition and thus the politicians’ incentives to cater for the citizens’ preferences are weakened by protectionist regulations aiming at the politicians’ origin, their incomes and the ‘production process of politics’. This paper suggests abolishing these regulations and institutionalizing an open, international market for politics. Foreign as well as profit-seeking ‘policy producers’ should be allowed to run directly for office without nominating specific individuals. This enables a policy supplier to become active in several countries and jurisdictions and thus to (...) build up an international reputation for being credible, i.e. of sticking to his promises and not exploiting the voters after election. The deregulation programme strengthens the influence of the weakly organized social groups and the governments' incentives to pursue what is of general interest. (shrink)

Cooperative discourse procedures produce consensual siting proposals for NIMBY-projects-but only if these proposals do not affect the final siting decision. Then, the members of the discourse commissions stay independent and face few incentives to pursue consequentialist interests. However, the more influential discourse procedures become, the stronger the interest groups’ incentives are to take advantage of them. Thus, cooperative discourses turn into competitive, interest-centred procedures whose outcome is rejected by the less influential groups. The evolution of discourse procedures into functionally specialized (...) parliaments or even into FOCJ (Functional, Overlapping, Competing Jurisdictions) seems worth pursuing. (shrink)

Mediante esta reflexión sobre las teorías de justicia global, el autor introduce un fundamento normativo de una teoría realista y crítica. Considera que ciertos planteamientos morales sobre el problema de la pobreza severa y el subdesarrollo fallan en la cuestión normativa que ellos necesitan enfocar. Pues, ellos consideran la realidad institucional, económica y política de las injusticias en el contexto global. El autor introduce el principio racional de justificación, para establecer el fundamento normativo de una teoría realista y crítica.

It is often said that knowledge is power, but more often than not relevant knowledge is not used when political decisions are made. This book examines how political decisions relate to scientific knowledge and what factors determine the success of scientific research in influencing policy. The authors take a comparative and historical perspective and refer to well-known theoretical frameworks, but the focus of the book is on three case studies: the discourse of racism, Keynesianism, and climate change. These cases cover (...) a number of countries and different time periods. In all three the authors see a close link between 'knowledge producers' and political decision makers, but show that the effectiveness of the policies varies dramatically. This book will be of interest to scientists, decision makers and scholars alike. (shrink)

Am Leitfaden des Begriffs Malum oeconomicum fuhrt das Buch seine Leser in einen Dialog mit klassischen und zeitgenossischen Denkern uber die abgrundigen Seiten der Wirtschaft und ihre Spiegelungen in der Seele. In der Wirtschaft erscheinen Menschen tendenziell fureinander als blosse Werkzeuge ihrer Bedurfnisbefriedigung, andererseits wird wirtschaftliche Leistung mit Bedeutungen aufgeladen, die an das Heil in der religiosen Sphare gemahnen. Im Kapitalismus der Moderne entfaltet sich aus der Wechselwirkung zwischen einer entfesselten Produktion und den Antrieben des Innenlebens eine zuvor unbekannte Dynamik. (...) Ist diese in liberalen Theorien ein Anlass, das Malum oeconomicum fur verschwunden zu erklaren, so machen Fundamentalkritiker des globalen Kapitalismus geltend, dass dieser illusionare Bedurfnisse weckt und unversohnliche Gegensatze zwischen Arm und Reich hervorruft, deren Sprengkraft jeden sozialen Zusammenhalt gefahrdet. Aus der Lekture von Platon, Aristoteles, Thomas Hobbes, Bernard Mandeville, Adam Smith, Thomas Robert Malthus, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Georg Simmel, John Maynard Keynes, Martin Heidegger, Herbert Marcuse, John Rawls und Amartya Sen ergeben sich Aussichten auf das Wirtschaftsgeschehen, die uber die Engfuhrungen heutiger Debatten weit hinausweisen. (shrink)

There are several reasons which suggest that the role of nuclear weapons for deterrence in Europe is gradually diminishing. Thus, Europeans are confronted with the question whether and under what conditions strategic stability can be obtained in a post-nuclear world. From the analysis of a simple conceptual model of military conflict the conclusion is reached that, in order to preserve crisis stability in a non-nuclear world and to dampen the arms race, the antagonistic land forces in Europe need to be (...) gradually restructured in a manner so that neither side may perceive the other as a potential threat to its territorial integrity. The requisite structural changes ought to be brought about before nuclear weapons become altogether invailable for deterrence in Europe, otherwise the War saw Pact’s conventional superiority would, in a serious crisis, leave Western Europe only the choice between military defeat and a priori capitulation. There should be military as well as economic incentives for the implementation of structural changes toward a reduction of the offensive capabilities of conventional forces, if the so-called ‘defense efficiency hypothesis’ were to be validated. Otherwise, a deterioration of crisis stability must be expected during the transition period. (shrink)

The development of personal technologies has recently shifted from devices that seek to capture user attention to those that aim to improve user well-being. Digital wellness technologies use the same attractive qualities of other persuasive apps to motivate users towards behaviors that are personally and socially valuable, such as exercise, wealth-management, and meaningful communication. While these aims are certainly an improvement over the market-driven motivations of earlier technologies, they retain their predecessors’ focus on influencing user behavior as a primary metric (...) of success. Digital wellness technologies are still persuasive technologies, and they do not evade concerns over whether their influence on users is ethically justified. In this paper, we describe several ethical frameworks with which to assess the justification of digital wellness technologies’ influence on users. We propose that while some technologies help users to complete tasks and satisfy immediate preferences, other technologies encourage users to reflect on the values underlying their habits and teach them to evaluate their lives’ competing demands. While the former approach to digital wellness technology is not unethical, we propose that the latter approach is more likely to lead to skillful user engagement with technology. (shrink)

In late 2009, e-mails from a server at the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia were released that showed some climate scientists in an unfavorable light. Soon this scandal was known as “Climategate” and a highly charged debate started to rage on blogs and in the mass media. Much of the debate has been about the question whether anthropogenic global warming was undermined by the revelations. But ethical issues, too, became part and parcel of the debate. This (...) article aims to contribute to this debate, assessing the e-mail affair in the light of two normative analyses of science, one proposed by Robert Merton, the second by a recent suggestion to use the concept of honest brokering in science policy interactions. On the basis of these analyses, different aspects of malpractice will be discussed and possible solutions will be suggested. (shrink)

The quest for an all-encompassing theory, finally intended to give a solution to the problem of the unification of all natural forces, is seen today as one of the most important objectives of theoretical high-energy physics. This so-called 'Theory of Everything' is, actually, identified by some theoretical physicists with superstring theory. But superstring theory is in a crucial way incomplete. And, above all, it has fundamental problems with empirical testability – problems that make questionable its status as a physical theory (...) at all. (shrink)

Transport through the nuclear pore complex (NPC), a keystone of the eukaryotic building plan, is known to involve a large channel and an abundance of phenylalanine–glycine (FG) protein domains serving as binding sites for soluble nuclear transport receptors and their cargo complexes. However, the conformation of the FG domains in vivo, their arrangement in relation to the transport channel and their function(s) in transport are still vividly debated. Here, we revisit a number of representative transport models—specifically Brownian affinity gating, selective (...) phase gating, reversible FG domain collapse, and reduction of dimensionality (ROD)—in the light of new data obtained by optical single transporter recording, optical superresolution microscopy, artificial nanopores, and many other techniques. The analysis suggests that a properly adapted, simplified version of the ROD model accounts well for the available data. This has implications for nucleocytoplasmic transport in general. (shrink)

It is the purpose to examine Krafts arguments and proofs on the basis of the evidence which gives reality. His derivation of principles with unlimited validity is not successful, judgements concerning "basic valuations of human culture" being inhomogeneous and historically bound. The way to introduce norms into scientific statements by "teleological" foundation is only valid for "normal" principles, basic must be excluded. The fruitfulness of the first step is appreciated and illustrated by economic examples. Jointly in connection with this is (...) the third question. In accordance with Kraft, the "ranking" of value judgements of different kinds must be solved without privileges. Scientific examination and foundation of value systems has its legitimacy, but relevant decisions of basic principles can only happen in the pre-scientific sphere. In order to avoid other value judgements in scientific contexts, one ought to dispose of really operational criterions. Today, there is an almost complete lack in the practical field. This is partly due to theoretical and dogmatic interpretations of science procedures. Critical science has to accept the provisional character of all scientific research and must, therefore, integrate those value judgements, which result from not fully testable hypotheses. Their "internalization" into the scientific progress of knowledge allows together to delete a great deal of this crucial point. (shrink)