Suspended sediment modeling is an important subject for decision-makers at the catchment level. Accurate and reliable modeling of suspended sediment load is important for planning, managing, and designing of water resource structures and river systems. The objective of this study was to develop artificial intelligence- based ensemble methods for modeling SSL in Katar catchment, Ethiopia. In this paper, three single AI-based models, that is, support vector machine, adaptive neurofuzzy inference system, feed-forward neural network, and one conventional multilinear regression modes, were (...) used for SSL modeling. Besides, four different ensemble methods, neural network ensemble, ANFIS ensemble, weighted average ensemble, and simple average ensemble, were developed by combining the outputs of the four single models to improve their predictive performance. The study used two-year discharge and SSL data for training and verification of the applied models. Determination coefficient and root mean square error were used to evaluate the performances of the developed models. Based on the performance measure results, the ANFIS model provides higher efficiency than the other developed single models. Out of all developed ensemble models, the nonlinear ANFIS model combination method was found to be the most accurate method and could increase the efficiency of SVM, MLR, ANFIS, and FFNN models by 19.02%, 37%, 9.73%, and 16.3%, respectively, at the verification stage. Overall, the proposed ensemble models in general and the AI-based ensemble in particular provide excellent performance in SSL estimation. (shrink)

This article compares early nineteenth-century English and Scottish theories of the mind and the way that it develops to findings in today's developmental psychology and neuroscience through a close observation of the work of Elizabeth Hamilton. Hamilton was a Scottish writer and philosopher who produced three pedagogical works in her lifetime, consisting of her carefully formulated philosophy of mind and practical suggestions to caretakers and educators. Although Hamilton has received relatively little attention in modern philosophical literature, her understanding of the (...) mind and the way it develops—based on her nuanced understanding of associationism and Scottish faculty psychology—is overwhelmingly supported by empirical findings today. In addition to utilizing Hamilton's work for the sake of understanding early nineteenth-century philosophy of mind, I argue that a large portion of Hamilton's work should be used to inform future research programs, early caregiving guides, and educational methods. (shrink)

This paper investigates propositional hyperintensionality in counterfactuals. It starts with a scenario describing two children playing on a seesaw and studies the truth-value predictions for counterfactuals by four different semantic theories. The theories in question are Kit Fine’s truthmaker semantics, Luis Alonso-Ovalle’s alternative semantics, inquisitive semantics and Paolo Santorio’s syntactic truthmaker semantics. These predictions suggest that the theories that distinguish more of a given set of intensionally equivalent sentences (Fine and Alonso-Ovalle’s) fare better than those that do not (inquisitive semantics (...) and Santorio’s). Then we investigate how inquisitive semantics and Santorio can respond to these results. They can respond to them by helping themselves to considerations from Hurford disjunctions, disjunctions whose disjuncts stand in an entailment relation to one another. I argue that considerations from Hurford disjunctions are ad hoc modifications merely to predict the expected results. I conclude that the scenarios suggest a need for more fine-grained theories of sentential meaning in general. (shrink)

Sweatshop defenders argue that interference in sweatshop conditions through consumer activism or government regulations is morally wrong because, first, such acts harm sweatshop workers, and second, they disrespect these workers. Distinguishing the prohibitive aspects of sweatshop interference as harm on the one hand, and disrespect on the other, these sweatshop defenders build both a consequentialist and a deontological foundation for their argument, respectively. This article crafts a rejoinder to the second foundation of the defenders’ argument. In particular, the article responds (...) to the defenders against their argument that interference in sweatshop conditions might be morally impermissible because interferers disrespect workers with their activism. The ground of the defended argument is an ex ante interpretation of contractualist ethics. (shrink)

One common argument against sweatshops is that they are exploitative. Exploitation is taken as sufficient reason to condemn sweatshops as unjust and to argue that sweatshop owners have a moral duty to offer better working conditions to their employees. In this article, I argue that any exploitation theory falls short of covering all standard cases of sweatshops as exploitative. In going through the most prominent theories of exploitation, I explain why any given sweatshop can either be wrongfully exploitative or not, (...) depending on the exploitation theory being considered and the circumstances of the application. I conclude by suggesting that sweatshop critics had better find other reasons besides the charge of exploitation to protest or interfere with these workplaces. (shrink)

Abū Bakr Muḥammad bin Zakariyya’ al-Rāzī (865–925) is generally known as a freethinker who argued against prophecy and revealed religion based on arguments from fairness of God and rationality. Recently some scholars argued that Razi was not as radical as the general interpretation takes him to be. Both the freethinker and conservative interpretations seem well supported based on difference bodies of evidence. However, the evidence is based on secondhand reports. In this paper I argue there is an interpretation of prophecy (...) which is supported by primary sources and can reconcile these putatively contradictory positions. Under my interpretation Razi allows for prophecy based on the rationality of moral deference in certain circumstances. In this picture one function of prophets is to act as moral experts for deference. This interpretation provides a synthesis of the freethinker and conservative views. Razi is conservative in having room for prophecy because of his dualist nature of humanity, and Razi is still a freethinker who values reason above all, because moral expertise requires excellent command of reason. (shrink)

Prior's puzzle is a puzzle about the substitution of certain putatively synonymous or coreferential expressions in sentences. Prior's puzzle is important, because a satisfactory solution to it should constitute a crucial part of an adequate semantic theory for both proposition-embedding expressions and attitudinal verbs. I argue that two recent solutions to this puzzle are unsatisfactory. They either focus on the meaning of attitudinal verbs or content nouns. I propose a solution relying on a recent analysis of that-clauses in linguistics. Our (...) solution is superior, as it not only avoids the problems faced by previous solutions, but it also brings developments in linguistics in line to solve an old puzzle in philosophy. (shrink)

One can lie by asserting non-literal content. If I tell you “You are the cream in my coffee” while hating you, I can be rightfully accused of lying if my true emotions are unearthed. This is not easy to accommodate under many definitions of lying while also preserving the lying-misleading distinction. The essential feature of non-literal utterances is their falsity when literally construed. This interferes with accounts of lying and misleading, because such accounts often combine a literal construal of what (...) is said by an utterance with a falsity requirement for lying. In the presence of non-literal lies such definitions struggle to make plau- sible predictions for non-literal lies and merely misleading utterances together. In this article I aim to fix this by extending Daniel Hoek’s pragmatic account of conversational exculpature to assertions in general. Since this mechanism is designed to compute the intended meanings of non-literal utterances, it straightforwardly predicts non-literal lies to be as such. The lying-misleading distinction is also preserved, because merely misleading utterances arise out of exploiting a different pragmatic mechanism—Gricean additive implicatures. Along the way I also draw some general lessons about assertion and implicatures. (shrink)

In the new era, it is almost impossible to imagine a modern person without the information and communication technologies that fill his life. These technologies permeate all areas of activity, and education is no exception. Despite the huge number of research papers distributed on Twitter integrated into the fields of Education, there is a deficiency and lack of content analysis research papers. Thus, the search was conducted on the three major databases such as Web of Science, Scopus and the EBSCO (...) with the keywords selected as “Twitter in Education”, the study thus was based on content analysis. All studies published on Web of Science, Scopus and the EBSCO were statistically analyzed according to the frequencies and percentages. The distribution of the studies was analyzed regarding the publication years, document type, subject areas, organizations, authors, languages, countries/territories, and the research methods. The findings of this study reveal the importance of Twitter in Education, especially in medicine, social sciences and computer sciences. The findings of this study also highlighted the considerable growth of popularity over the years. (shrink)

Quando uma vida e uma morte estão totalmente incorporadas na doutrina cristã ou muçulmana, e quem deve ter a palavra final sobre uma questão tão importante? No cristianismo e no islamismo, o martírio nunca aparece como algo independente, é sempre colocado em conexão com a bravura, o amor, a coragem e a determinação – e muito mais. O mártir é uma “espécie” específica, um crente por excelência. Que critérios devem ser cumpridos para falar de um mártir no cristianismo e no (...) islamismo? Esta é uma questão que está se tornando cada vez mais importante devido a vários processos de radicalização no mundo. O objetivo deste artigo é mostrar os critérios cristãos e muçulmanos do martírio de uma forma compacta e elaborar o interesse da política no martírio. Über die Ambivalenzen des Martyriums Wann ist ein Leben und ein Tod ganz in der christlichen bzw. der muslimischen Lehre eingebettet und wer soll über eine so fundamental wichtige Frage das letzte Wort haben? Im Christentum und im Islam tritt das Martyrium niemals als etwas Eigenständiges auf, es wird immer in Beziehung zu Tapferkeit, Liebe, Mut und Entschlossenheit – und vielem mehr – gesetzt. Der Märtyrer ist eine spezifische Spezies“, ein Gläubiger par excellence. Welche Kriterien müssen erfüllt sein, damit im Christentum und Islam von einem Märtyrer gesprochen werden kann? Eine Frage, die aufgrund verschiedener Radikalisierungsprozesse auf der Welt immer wichtiger wird und die nach einer Antwort verlangt. Ziel dieses Artikels ist es, christliche und muslimische Kriterien des Martyriums kompakt aufzuzeigen und das Interesse der Politik herauszuarbeiten. Schlüsselwörter: Martyrium. Christentum. Islam. Gewalt. Politik. (shrink)

Al-Shāfiʿī’s works contain reports of numerous debates on the epistemological value of hadith reports, but unfortunately rarely name specific opponents or interlocutors or the groups to which they belong. In Jimāʿ al-ʿilm al-Shāfiʿī summarizes the views of scholars whom he considered opponents of hadith under two broad rubrics: those who reject hadith categorically and those who reject only part of the hadith. There have been speculations regarding their identity but only in 2013 was a concrete advance made, when Ahmed El (...) Shamsy identified one of al-Shāfiʿī’s opponents in debate as Ibn ʿUlayya. This study attempts to identify a group of al-Shāfiʿī’s opponents in Jimāʿ al-ʿilm, drawing on Abū l-Qāsim al-Balkhī’s Kitāb al-Maqālāt and other classical works of Islamic theology. (shrink)

Çalışmamızda Kur’ân’da izzet ve mülk kavramlarının nasıl bir üslupla sunulduğu ve tefsir kaynaklarımızda izzet ve mülkün elde edilme keyfiyetine nasıl yaklaşıldığı hususu ele alınmıştır. Bu kapsamda mülk ve izzetin teminine dair âyetler incelenmiş, Fâtır sûresinin 10. âyeti ise diğer âyetlere nispetle daha ayrıntılı biçimde ele alınmıştır. Zikri geçen âyetin çalışmanın merkezinde olmasına bağlı olarak konuyla ilgili kavramsal çerçeveye söz konusu âyetteki kavramlar da dâhil edilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda izzet, mülk, amel, sâlih ve kelime kavramları makalenin sınırlı alanı kapsamında incelenmiştir. Sözü edilen (...) kavramlar incelenirken genel bir çerçeve çizildikten sonra makaledeki teze destek olacak anlam çerçevesi üzerinde yoğunlaşılmıştır. Ele alınan kavramların pek çok çalışmada ele alınmasına binaen söz konusu kaynaklara da değinilmiş fakat sözlükler ve tefsirlerdeki açıklamalar esas alınmıştır. Kavramsal çerçeveden sonra izzet ve mülkün temini hususunda ilâhî meşîet ve ilâhî yasalar eksenindeki anlayışlara yer verilmiştir. Çalışmanın son kısmında özellikle Fâtır sûresinin zikri geçen âyeti ve sâlih amel kavramı çerçevesinde konuyla ilgili tarafımızca değerlendirmelerde bulunulmuştur. Bu değerlendirmelerde âyetlerin vakıa üzerinden tefsir edilmesi anlayışı ve tefsir kaynaklarında bu anlayışı yansıtan yaklaşımlar benimsenmiştir. (shrink)

Activists and progressive governments sometimes interfere in the working conditions of sweatshops. Their methods may include boycotts of the products produced in these facilities, bans on the import of these products or tariffs imposed by the home country, and enforcing the host country’s laws that aim at regulating sweatshops. Some argue that such interference in sweatshop conditions is morally wrong since it may actually harm workers. The reason is that the enterprise that runs the sweatshop may choose to lay off (...) some workers as the result of effective interference in order to maintain their profit at the desired level. If successful, this argument would prohibit any interference in sweatshop conditions on moral grounds. In this article, I argue in dissent and build a contractualist argument in favor of the moral permissibility of interference in sweatshops. I base my argument on an ex ante interpretation of T.M. Scanlon’s contractualism. (shrink)

Ṣāliḥ bin ʿAbd al-Quddūs of Persian origin was born in Basra, the crossroad of religions and teachings with its socio-cultural, scientific and intellectual structure. He grew up in a family that values religion, politics and literature. Rich scientific background and cross-cultural integration of Basra significantly influenced his scientific and intellectual development. However, in historiographical sources, he is an intellectual who has come to the fore with his literary identity. His ‘sectarian’, ‘political’, ‘wise’ (ḥikami), ‘didactic’ and 'gnomic' poems form the main (...) theme of his literary writings. Various titles have been attributed to him by the authors of history and biography. "Master of poets, street preacher, storyteller, theologian and philosopher" are a number of them. Before the translation of philosophical works, he became one of the important representatives of the 'literary theology', the dialectical technique of the period. Thus, besides his poetic and literary identity, he is mentioned as one of the six theologians of Basra. Over time, he was able to attract the attention of the political power with his theoretical and literary works for both theo-political and social adjustment. However, he was not understood adequately, and his poems did not attract the necessary attention since philosophical/wise expressions were widely found in them. In his poems, it is possible to see every tone of hope and hopelessness. He reflects hope, rights, justice, equality, freedom, moral virtues, but more often; despair, death, transience of the world, ascetism and distancing from people. For this reason, he is also referred to as the "poet of despair." From this point of view, his call to the life of ascetism was interpreted as dualism. The opinions of Ṣāliḥ calling for social adjustment, justice and equality were perceived as a threat by the political authority and he was killed with the accusation of heresy. Although it is generally accepted that he was executed due to heresy, there is much speculative information about the subject. Of two examples are that he subjected to ethnic discrimination due to his Persian origin, and that he was a philosopher of dualism and a follower of Manichaeism. However, the reason for the murder of Ṣāliḥ was neither his theological choice nor ethnic origin. His poetry, which motivated social morality, intellectual development, freedom and social enlightenment, turned him into a threat to the political power. It would appear that his opposition to Arab nationalism and privilege in the ranks of Šuʿūbiyya, a populism movement and his demand that justice and equality should spread throughout all layers of society, caused political prosecution. In this process, the rule chose the easiest way to silence any opposing voice by implementing the accusation of heresy. The concept of heresy, especially with the Abbasids, quickly turned away from its religious concerm and changed into a political notion. As a result, academic discussions conducted at the scientific and intellectual level in Basra were moved to a practical arena by politics, and the dose of criticism and violence increased. First of all, with its scientific and bureaucratic elements, the state embarked on an intellectual and actual struggle with heretical teachings, which aims to distort the essential principles of Islam by dissimulation (taqīyya). Although this political attitude towards heresy, which aims to break down Islamic values, can somehow be considered reasonable, the area of accusation of heresy expanded in time; causing every opposing movement to be evaluated within this scope. However, when the main theme of his poems is examined, the first point, attracting attention is his call to believe in God, the truth of the hereafter, reckoning consciousness, responsibility, justice, equality, freedom, etc. In fact, referring to the Qur’ān and ḥadīth in his poems already proves that he was a Muslim. Nevertheless, his poems were sometimes interpreted and presented as an evidence of his heresy and whenever he was found stating the right, his statements were found invalid because of accusation of dissimulation. Considering all these facts, this article will make a logical consistency analysis of the information and narrations about Ṣāliḥ. It will also examine the validity of the accusations of heresy against him, based on his literary discourses, religious identity and political attitude. As a result, it will determine whether the negative (theological) attribution to him is really an accusation or truth by an analytical inference. (shrink)

This article descriptively discusses the divine purpose in the creation of the world and especially the human being, and the value analysis of the concepts, expressing this purpose in the light of the views of Qāḍī ʿAbd al-Jabbār (d. 415/1024), who was from the Basra School, and systemized the five doctrinal principles of the Mu'tazila. Accordingly, it answers the question why God created the human on the basis of the purpose/aim in divine actions and examines the qualitative value of the (...) non-compulsory cause (dā’ī) that motivates God to create. In addition, the article shows that 'beneficence', the central concept in the purpose of the creation, is formulized as ‘tafaḍḍul’ (disinterested or gratuitous beneficence) with the title of wisdom before the creation and as ‘thawāb’ (reward) and ‘iwaḍ (compensation) with the title of wājib (necessary or obligatory) in the resurrection. It also emphasizes that ‘iqāb (punishment) is not a value for the beginning of creation, and therefore it is 'legal good' required by the resurrection. It also touches on that the concepts, expressing all this purposefulness are based on the values of 'benefit and good' (maṣlaḥa and ḥusn). This article concludes that while the main purpose of the beginning of creation is beneficence and its actual value is tafaḍḍul; the main purpose of re-creation is benefit and good, and the actual value is wājib. (shrink)

Kates argues that ex ante contractualism fails to defend interference with sweatshops on moral grounds. In this commentary, I argue that Kates does not apply this approach correctly. Ex ante contractualism, indeed, successfully defends interference and thus should still be considered an appealing alternative to other moral approaches for evaluating when and how to interfere in sweatshop conditions to help workers.

The process of deciding which higher education institution to attend is a very important turning point for an individual who graduates from a secondary education institution and has sufficient central placement score. Making the right decisions at the mentioned turning point is important both for the individual him/herself and for the quality of the future service. In this context, the main purpose of this study, which consists of findings obtained from the descriptive analysis of the answers given to 9 open-ended (...) questions, is to determine the opinions of the individuals who continue higher religious education within the scope of the choice of faculty, the determined goal and the quality of the education. In order to achieve this aim, the research was completed with the participation of 117 students, 54 male and 63 female, studying in the Faculty of Islamic Sciences of Giresun University in the 2019-2020 academic year. According to the data obtained in the study, the participants' interest in the field in the process of choosing the faculty, their interest in the field, especially to receive religious education, affected by factors such as placement score, professional justification, the school they graduated from, the desire to acquire knowledge, family and influence of social environment, desire to serve religion. In addition, concerns about employment have been pointed out as the main reason for turning to higher religious education throughout the country. Considering the targets determined regarding the process before and after higher religious education, continuing higher religious education with graduate education and being a teacher of the RCaM, Qur'an course teacher, Imam hatip, muezzin within the Ministry of National Education and Presidency of Religious Affairs were mentioned. In terms of the quality of teaching, learning techniques based on rote are criticized, while teacher-student interaction in the institution where the education is made is mentioned as a reference increasing the quality of education. (shrink)

Islamic law has an advanced legal theory, apart from the four basic decision-making methods, many judgment-gaining theories based on interpretation and reasoning have been derived which have been developed by Islamic jurists in the process. Islamic jurists have used some of their knowledge and techniques to correct the problematic results that arise from both the incorrect use of methods of obtaining judgments and the expansion of the scope of these methods. With these interdisciplinary studies, it was aimed to interpret the (...) criticisms directed against the analogy process and the causes accurately. One of the methods used at the point of revealing whether these criticisms and objections are based on a justified reason and evidence is the debating method. The method of debating, which has become an independent discipline along with fiqh and kalām in the Islamic scientific tradition, began to form during the periods when sects were formed (II century Hijri). The discipline of debate, which has found a practical field in the methodology of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), has been particularly effective in interpreting analogy (qiyas), which constitutes an important part of fiqh, and is even assumed to be among the methods of inference (istidlāl). Many Fasād al-waḍʻ (invalidity of an argument of syllogism) is one of the methods of debating has been used in uṣūl al-fiqh. Fasād al-waḍ‘ has been described as the binding of a provision to a cause (ʻillat) that is the opposite of what that cause requires. This is a situation that completely invalidates the cause. In Fasād al-wad‘, the objector proves that the analogy is erroneous by directing objections to the person who brings the evidence. Since Fasād al-wad‘ is a type of objection directed to the basis of the fiction of analogy, it has been accepted by Islamic jurists as one of the strong objections directed to the cause/analogy. However, the issue of which cause this type of objection can be directed against has been discussed among Islamic jurists. Hanafīs accept Fasād al-wad‘ as a sound objection method, but they think that it is not possible to object to the effective causes (al-ʻillat al-muaththirah) with it. Because, according to Hanafīs, the correctness of the effective quality has been revealed by the Qur’ān, the Sunnah and the consensus (ijmā’). Because these proofs do not produce false qualifications. According to Shafeis, all causes and provision can be objected with Fasād al-wad’. In fact, some Shāfi'ī jurists consider this method as a general type of objection, not aunique one to the analogy. Due to these different interpretations that Islāmic law schools attribute to the conditions of analogy and the nature of Fasād al-wad‘, different results may arise in furû issues. In this study, Fasād al-wad‘as a type of objection to the analogy process in Islamic legal procedure has been examined and the nature of Fasād al-wad‘ has been tried to be revealed by determining the comparative furû. Thus, it is aimed to identify and analyse the diversity of legal reasoning methods, which have an important place in the logic of law in Islam and can be gathered under the name of analogy. (shrink)

In this study, it is aimed to determine the perceptions of high school students about the Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge course and their teachers through metaphors. In the study, which was designed in a phenomenological (factual) design, one of the qualitative research designs, the participants were determined by the criterion sampling method, one of the purposive sampling methods. The data were collected from 262 students studying in 4 different high school institutions in the 2021-2022 academic year. The research data (...) were obtained by completing the sentences “Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge teacher…like/because…and Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge lesson…-similar/ because……like” in the form given to them. The metaphors obtained at this stage were categorized according to their semantic content, divided into sections, expressed numerically and tabulated, and interpreted in a way that the reader can understand. As a result of the research in which the students' perceptions of the Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge course were gathered under three themes as positive, neutral and negative, it was determined that the majority of the students produced positive metaphors for the Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge Lesson and teacher. (shrink)

In Islam, there is a belief that Allah has a ‘throne’ [al-ʿArsh, the highest level of the heavens] in the sky and that Allah sent the Qurʾān directly from that throne or through an angel. According to this belief, the Qurʾān descended from the seventh level of the heavens to the first level and then completed its descent to the earth in pieces over 23 years. Accordingly, the Qurʾān descended from a certain place with determined borders, namely from the throne (...) [al-ʿArsh] of Allah. However, theological books [the literature and sources of ʿılm al-Kalām] contend that Allah is free from space and time and that a specific space cannot be attributed to Allah. The verses of the Qurʾān even suggest that Allah is not only above in the heavens but everywhere. Therefore, the main question of our article is why Allah wanted to send the Qurʾān specifically from the heavens if Allah is free from space. We show that the descent of the Qurʾān from the heavens to the earth is not realistic but is a symbolic and metaphorical narrative. (shrink)

This thesis extends Kit Fine's truthmaker semantics for counterfactuals to indicative conditionals. First, I provide Fine's truthmaker semantics and his extension to counterfactuals. Then I introduce a notion of context state into the semantics and provide the verification-conditions for indicative conditionals by employing this notion of context state. Afterwards, I turn to the logic of indicative conditionals under exact semantics and discuss the principles and inference rules which raise disagreements between variably strict and strict conditionals accounts. The account I provide (...) shows its promise by validating a plausible combination of principles and strikes a balance between variably strict and strict conditional theories. I discuss certain principles in logic of indicative conditionals under exact semantics in detail and show how the present account validates the plausible combination of them. In the end, I draw comparisons between the viable theories for indicatives and the present one, and argue that the present account takes the advantage in several respects. (shrink)

Namaz birçok âyet ve hadisin önemine vurgu yaptığı ibadetlerdendir. Hatta Kur’an’da namazla birlikte anılmak, diğer ibadetler için bir değer ölçüsü olarak görülmüştür. Hz. Peygamber’in sözlerinde namaz, kalbî bir eylem olan imanın görünür ve yaşanır ölçüsü olarak kabul edilmiştir. Namazın terk edilmesi farklı yorumlar olmakla birlikte “küfür” kelimesiyle de ifade edilmiştir. Bu öneminden dolayı namazın kasten terkedilmesi, namaz vaktinin farkında olmadan kaçırılması veya gaflete düşüp namaz içerisinde birtakım yanlışlar yapılması gibi konuları içeren hadisler titizlikle ele alınıp anlaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Üzerinde farklı yorumların (...) yapıldığı rivayetlerden biri de “kulun kıyamet günü ilk olarak namazdan hesaba çekileceğini” bildiren hadistir. Metnin devamında ise “şayet farzlarda bir eksiklik bulunursa bunların nafilelerle tamamlanacağı” haber verilmektedir. Bu muhtevasıyla rivayet; namazın tembellik ve gaflet eseri terkedilmesi, istemsiz olarak kaçırılması ve kılınırken yapılabilecek birtakım hataların telafisi gibi birçok ihtimale hamledilebilecek bir anlama sahiptir. Makalede söz konusu rivayetin senet ve metnine dönük değerlendirmeler yapılacak ve zikri geçen bu ihtimâllerden hangisine delâletinin daha kuvvetli olduğu tespit edilmeye çalışılacaktır. (shrink)

İnsanların günlük hayatlarında en çok kullandıkları muamelelerden biri olan alış veriş, toplumların örflerine göre çeşitlilik göstermiştir. Bu sebeple klasik füru fıkıh eserlerinde akitlerin çok bilinenlerine yer verilmiş, diğerleri için de genel şartları sağlaması kaydıyla caiz olabileceği kanaatine varılmıştır. Bununla beraber mezheplerin nasları anlama yöntemleri ve örfi uygulamaları değerlendirme biçimleri, akitlerin sıhhatini değerlendirmelerinde de ektili olmuştur. Mahiyeti itibariyle değişik formları bulunmasıyla birlikte kısaca, ürünün peyderpey alınıp ücretin ürünün tüketilmesinden sonra ödenmesinin taahhüt edilmesi şeklinde tarif edilen isticrâr akdi, İslam hukuk ekolleri tarafından (...) tartışılmıştır. Bu tartışmalar genellikle akdin sıhhat ve kuruluş unsurlarını taşıyıp taşımaması etrafında gerçekleşirken Hanefi fukahası, isticrâr yoluyla yapılan alışveriş işlemlerinin insanlar tarafından sıkça yapıldığını göz önünde bulundurarak bu akdin istihsan yoluyla caiz görülmesi gerektiği kanaatine varmışlardır. Diğer mezheplerde de bu akde benzer gerekçelerle olumlu yaklaşımların bulunduğunu görmekteyiz. Bu çalışmamızda günümüz kırsal kesimde uygulanan ve özellikle finans dünyasında uygulanmaya başlanan ve aynı isimle literatüre girer isticrâr akdini, mezheplerin görüşleri bağlamında değerlendirmeye çalışacağız. (shrink)

1980’li yıllarda uygulanan neo-liberal politikalar nedeniyle Sivil Toplum Kuruluşlarının yapmış oldukları faaliyetler önem kazanmış Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları sosyal dayanışma, sosyal yardım ve yoksulluk yardımları gibi pek çok önemli faaliyette bulunmuşlardır. Kocaeli bölgesinde faaliyet gösteren bir Sivil Toplum Kuruluşu olan Değirmendere Sualtı Topluluğu (DESSAT) sosyal sorumluluk kapsamında dezavantajlı kesim olarak nitelendirilen engellilere yönelik 2011-2013 yılları arasında SCUBA dalış eğitimi faaliyetinde bulunmuştur. Bu çalışmada; DESSAT’ın yapmış olduğu SCUBA dalış eğitimlerinin engellilerin kapasite yoksunluğuna etkileri, eğitmenlerin ve dalış faaliyetine katılan engellilerin deneyimleri ve gözlemleri (...) incelenerek belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın amacı engellilerin kapasite yoksunluğunu azaltma faaliyetlerinde Sivil Toplum Kuruluşlarının rolleri konusuna dikkat çekerek farkındalık yaratmak, SUCUBA dalış eğitimi faaliyetinin engellilerin kapasiteleri yoksunlukları üzerindeki etkilerini araştırmak ve görüş/önerilerde bulunmaktır. Çalışma nitel bir çalışma olup tematik analiz tekniği kullanılarak yapılmıştır. SCUBA dalış eğitimi faaliyetinin engellilerin kapasite yoksunluklarına etkisinin belirlenmesi maksadıyla dalış eğitmenleri ve sualtı dalışı yapan engellilerle derinlemesine görüşmeler yapılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda engelliler ve eğitmenlerle yapılan derinlemesine görüşmelerden elde edilen bilgiler değerlendirilmiş değerlendirme sonucunda SCUBA dalış faaliyetinin engellilerin sosyalleşmesine, toplum içerisindeki diğer faaliyetlere katılmasında, kendilerini mutlu ve huzurlu hissetmelerine, özgüvenlerinin artırılmasına, yapabilirlik olarak engellerinin ortadan kaldırılmasına önemli oranda katkısı sağladığı tespit edilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Engelli, Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları, Kapasite Yoksunluğu, Yoksulluk, SCUBA. (shrink)

In this study, we try to introduce the intellectual and literary personality of Temmâm Hassân and his place and importance in the modern Arabic literature, his works and translations, who was among the eminent personages of XX. century and an investigator, critic, translator and linguist. He was a prolific scholar, supplying a new countenance to the modern Arabic language in his nearly centennial life period.

Technology advancement provide more effective and efficient ways for the people to perform individual and or collective roles and execution of responsibilities, and this has also resulted to tenacious upsurge in peoples' dependence on technology. As the right for people with disabilities increases, the need to cater for their educational right like every other learner brought about the quest to provide for AT that can best serve those special students. Application of AT can help students with one or more deficiencies, (...) aid information collection process and increase learning motivation. The aim of this study is to conduct content analysis of studies on AT in education and the research sample consist of research publications on AT in education published on Scopus between 2018-2022. Content analysis was conducted on the research publications related to the research and the data gotten were evaluated through descriptive statistical methods with the intention that research findings will add to the body of literature and create more quest for research interest on AT in education. The findings indicated that, more studies were conducted in the year 2021 compared to others, qualitative research method was applied more in those studies, followed by quantitative and mixed methods, the larger percentage of the studies under review were conducted under special education, and the greater part of co-authorship were local collaboration. (shrink)

İslam düşüncesinde dillerin ortaya çıkışı konusu, dilbilimsel çalışma ve tartışmaların büyük bir bölümünü oluşturmuştur. Bu tartışmalarda en büyük pay usul ve kelâm âlimlerine aittir. Müslümanlar, dillerin ortaya çıkmasıyla ilgili iki teori öne sürmüşlerdir: Birincisi, tevkîf teorisidir. Buna göre dil ilahi bir mevhibe olup insana Allah tarafından öğretilmiştir. Çok kadim olan bu teori Yunan filozofları tarafından da savunulmuştur. İkinci teori ise tevfîk teorisidir. Bu teorinin sahipleri dilin toplumsal uzlaşı ile doğduğunu öngörürler. Bu teoriyi savunanların çoğu, delillerini aklî temele dayandıran Muʻtezile’ye mensup (...) olup metinleri kendi görüşlerine uygun bir şekilde yorumlamışlardır. Bazı âlimler ise bu iki teoriyi uzlaştırmaya çalışmışlardır. Buna göre Cenâb-ı Hak, insana kavram üretme yeteneği vermiş ve bunun için uygun mekanizmalar bahşetmiştir. Fakat yine de dilin ilk kökeninin tevkîfî olması gerekir ki sonradan insan dili gelişim gösterebilsin. Kādî Abdülcebbâr bu konuda farklı bir görüş ortaya atar. Ona göre ilk dil tevkîfî olamaz tam aksine Allah'ın hitabını anlamamız için tevfîkî olması gerekir. Allah'ın insana anladığı bir dille hitap etmesi gerektiği deliline istinaden, Kādî Abdülcebbâr bu teoriyi savunmuştur. Yukarıdaki tartışma dilin ilk kökeni ile ilgilidir. İlk dilden sonra gelen dillere gelince, Kādî Abdülcebbâr onların çıkışı hakkında kesin bir şey söylemez. Yani hem tevkîfî olabilir hem de tevfîkî olma ihtimali mevcuttur. Bu iki ihtimalin hiçbirini destekleyecek bir delil yoktur. Kādî Abdülcebbâr, Allah'ın iradesini anlamak için öngördüğü bu durumun nasıl olması gerektiğini bir örnekle açıklıyor. O, öncelikle bir kelimenin bir lafzı ifade-işaret etmesi gerektiğini ve bunun da mutlaka belli bir maksat için konulmuş olması gerektiğini savunur. İsim, konulduğu şeye niyete bir gayeye uygun olarak işaret etmelidir. Modern dilbilimde ise, yukarıdaki iki teori haricinde birkaç teori daha ortaya atılmıştır. Modern dilbilim kitaplarında büyük yer tutan ve on sekizinci yüzyılın sonunda ortaya çıkan ilk dilin kökeni teorisi; dilin insan türünün özel bir içgüdüsünden kaynaklandığını belirten ve onun doğuştan geldiğini savunan teoridir. Yani insanda, her duyusal ve ahlaki algısını bir kelime ile ifade etmesini sağlayan bir fıtratı vardır. Modern teorilerden biri de, kelimelerin ilk oluşumunun insanın duyduğu doğal sesleri taklit etmesiyle ortaya çıktığını ve bu seslerin kaynağının onlardan isimler türetmeye yönelttiğini savunan taklit teorisidir. Bu çalışmada Kādî Abdülcebbâr’ın dilin kökenine dair özgün teorisi ve teorisini desteklemek için ortaya koyduğu akli deliller ele alınmaktadır. (shrink)

Ahmed b. Hanbel, vefatıyla neticelenen hastalığı esnasında oğlu Abdullah’tan, şu hadisin el-Müsned’inden çıkartılmasını istemiştir: “Allah Rasûlü ‘Ümmetimi Kureyş’ten şu grup helâk edecek’ buyurunca oradakiler ‘(bu durumda) bize neyi emredersin?’ diye sordular. O da ‘İnsanlar onlardan uzak durup ayrılsalar!’ cevabını verdi”. Ahmed b. Hanbel bu hadisin, diğer rivayetlerle çeliştiğini düşünmektedir. Oğlu Abdullah’a göre bu hadisin çeliştiği rivayetler, Hz. Peygamber’in idarecilere itaat etmeyi ve onlardan kaynaklanan yanlışlara karşı sabırlı olmayı emrettiği haberlerdir. Ahmed b. Hanbel’in tavrı ve bunun sebebi esasen açık ve net (...) gibi görünmektedir. Buna rağmen daha sonra gelen ilim adamları, onun bu tavrı ile ilgili farklı değerlendirmeler yapmışlardır. Bu değerlendirmelerden birine göre İmam’ın tavrı, kendi açıklamasında da dikkat çektiği üzere hadisin şaz olması yani halkın idarecilerle ilişkilerini düzenleyen diğer rivayetlerle çelişmesidir. Bu bakış açısı, İmam’ın açıklamasıyla uyum içinde olmasına ilaveten aynı hadisin Buharî ve Müslim gibi meşhur muhaddisler tarafından nakledilmesi açısından da önemlidir. Zira bu yorumun ulaştığı sonuca göre Buharî ve Müslim’in sadece sahih olan hadisler ihtiva ettikleri iddiasıyla takdim ettiği el-Câmi‘u’s-sahîh isimli eserlerinde, bu şarta uymayan rivayetler de bulunabilmektedir. Bununla birlikte söz konusu hadisin hem sened hem de metni üzerinde yapılan incelemeler şaz iddiasının doğru olamayacağını göstermektedir. Nitekim hadisi nakleden dört ravinin tamamı, içinde Ahmed b. Hanbel’in de bulunduğu münekkitler tarafından güvenilir bulunmuştur. Nitekim İmam, el-Müsned’inde bu ravilerin çok miktarda hadisine yer vermektedir. Hadisin metin açısından da şaz olmadığını söylemek mümkündür. Zira metnin birinci cümlesi olan “Ümmetimin helâki Kureyş’in elinden olacak” şeklindeki tespiti, farklı onlarca hadiste görebilmek mümkündür. Bu hadislerden pek çoğu el-Müsned’de bizzat Ahmed b. Hanbel tarafından da nakledilmiştir. Şaz addedilen kısmın “İnsanlar onlardan uzak dursalar” şeklindeki ikinci cümle olması da pek muhtemel görünmemektedir. Zira zalim idarecilere karşı bundan çok daha şiddetli tepkileri emreden hadislerden onlarcası yine bizzat Ahmed b. Hanbel tarafından nakledilmiş durumdadır. Ahmed b. Hanbel’in, bu hadisi kitabından çıkarmak istemesinin sebebi bağlamında ortaya atılan ikinci iddiaya göre İmam, dönemin yönetimiyle iyi geçinmek amacıyla böyle bir talepte bulunmuştur. Zira bu dönemde Abbasî iktidarı, hadisçileri büyük bir sıkıntıya sokan Mihne sürecine son vermiş, ulemaya karşı yumuşama politikası gütmeye başlamıştır. Ahmed b. Hanbel de yönetimin bu uzlaşma arzusuna olumlu cevap vermiş ve bu çerçevede idareciye karşı sergilenecek sert tutuma işaret eden hadisleri kitabından çıkarmak istemiştir. Fakat bu iddia da yaşadığı dönemde iktidara karşı takındığı tavır sayesinde toplum önderi haline gelmiş Ahmed b. Hanbel gibi bir şahsiyetle uyuşmaz. Zira o idareci ve toplum arasındaki ilişkilerin keyfiyeti ve sıhhati konusunda gerek tavsiyeleri gerekse fiilî tatbikatı ile örnek ve simge haline gelmiştir. Hayatını Hz. Peygamber’in mirası olan hadisleri nakletmeye ve doğru anlaşılmasına hasreden böyle bir şahsiyetin, sırf iktidarla iyi geçinmek adına, sened ve metin itibariyle usûl problemi olmayan rivayetleri el-Müsned’den çıkartılması emrini vermesi çok da doğru görünmemektedir. Bu konuda yapılan üçüncü yoruma göre Ahmed b. Hanbel’in bu hadise yönelik tavrı, manasının istismara müsait olmasıdır. Nitekim İmam’ın bizzat kendisi, ehl-i bid‘attan bazılarının bu hadisi delil getirip iktidara karşı toplumda ayrımcılık yaratacak davranışlara yöneldiğini söylemiştir. Elimizde bu son yorumu güçlendiren başka veriler de vardır. Nitekim o aynı tavrı, iktidara karşı silahlı mücadeleyi emreden başka hadisler hakkında da göstermiş; bunların kitabından çıkartılmasını istemiştir. Bu tavrından anlaşıldığına göre Ahmed b. Hanbel, zalim idareciye karşı, toplumda kargaşa ve fesada sebep olacak fiilî ve silahlı mücadeleye kalkışılmasını istememektedir. Öyleyse denilebilir ki İmam’ın söz konusu hadisle ilgili tavrı, hadisin özellikle “insanların böyle idarecilerden uzak durması” yönündeki ikinci cümle ile ilgilidir. Zira İmam’ın yaşadığı dönemde Mutezile ve Haricîler gibi bazı gruplar böyle hadisleri delil getirerek toplumda tefrikaya sebebiyet vermişlerdir. Bunu bilen ve bizzat gören İmam, böyle grupların toplumsal birlik karşıtı amaçlarına alet edilebilir düşüncesiyle idarecilere karşı “uzak durmaya çalışmak” gibi basit gibi görünen tepkilere yer veren hadislerin bile kitabından çıkarılmasını istemiştir. Sonuç olarak ifade etmek gerekirse onun bu hadis hakkındaki “diğer rivayetlerle çelişiyor” şeklindeki tavrını, “Müsned’imde oluşturmaya çalıştığım ideal idareci-toplum ilişkisi ile çelişiyor” şeklinde anlamak gerekecektir. (shrink)

Religion refers to two excuses for the deliberately abandoning of prayers: sleep and forgetting. However, according to some scholars, some other reasons may also allow the deliberately abandoning of prayers. The most important support of these scholars is that the Messenger of Allah performed some prayers outside their own time during the al-Khandaq. However, there is a serious obstacle in front of this approach: The fear prayer. The aim of the article is to reveal the relationship between this application of (...) the Prophet and the fear prayer and investigates whether it is a general rule to leave a prayer due to the fear of war or the enemy. The importance of this issue stems from the fact that the practice in this battle is comparable. If this is accepted as a general rule, the framework of the issues that may cause a prayer to be left can be expanded. Excuses that can be considered force majeure and legitimate in terms of daily life can be added to the unconscious states of harmony and forgetting. Therefore, the article mentions a much smaller dimension of this broad framework, rather than the general aspects of the issue, such as the deliberately abandoning of prayers, whether it is possible or not, and its proofs. In this context, it can be said that it is of great importance to determine the historical sequence between this battle and the prayer of fear. The article comes to a conclusion through the determination of this relationship, which has clues in various hadith, history, and commentary books. (shrink)