Nach einer allgemeinen Diskussion des Zusammenhanges zwischen theoretischer und experimenteller Forschung, wird in Hinblick auf die vom Verfasser entwickelten physikalisch-mathematischen Grundlagen der Biologie, eine Reihe von Einzelproblemen betrachtet. Es wird an Hand von Kurvenmaterial gezeigt wie weit die mathematisch vorausgesagten Beziehungen mit den experimentellen Befunden übereinstimmen. Folgende Fragen werden besprochen: Zellatmung, Zellgrössen, deren Abhängigkeit von Stoffwechsel, Zellteilung, Protoplasmaströmungen, Nervenerregung, psychophysische Gesetze, Reaktion auf geometrische Gestalten.Après une mise au point générale de la relation entre les sciences théoriques et expérimentales, diverses questions (...) sont discutées, du point de vue des fondations physico-mathématiques de la biologie, développées récemment par l'auteur. On montre par la comparaison des courbes calculées à celles observées, comment les relations prédites mathématiquement se trouvent vérifiées. Les questions suivantes sont discutées: respiration cellulaire, dimensions cellulaires et leur rapport au métabolisme, division cellulaire, mouvements protoplasmiques, excitation nerveuse, les lois psychophysiques, perception des formes géométriques. (shrink)

Mathematical methods in biology occupy a somewhat peculiar position, and the attitude of many biologists toward them is similar to that of many practical engineers toward what is called pure scientific research. The modern progressive engineer recognizes the value of pure science, which seeks for truth regardless of any possibility of practical applications; yet he still frequently shows a definite dislike towards such investigations. The whole history of civilization demonstrates that discoveries which, at the time they were made, did not (...) show any signs of the possibility of being turned into practical use, now lie at the basis of many useful engineering devices. As Professor R. A. Millikan has said, we owe our present-day civilization to Galileo. Every educated person, be he pure scientist or engineer, recognizes this fact. And yet the frame of mind of the “practical” man is not too receptive to investigations which do not show at least some remote prospects of practical applications. Unless he can see at least hypothetically some practical results of such research, he will not give it his whole-hearted enthusiasm. The ultimate criterion in the evaluation of any research still remains its practical use. Those pure scientists who have had close contact with what is called “industrial research” know only too well the truth of the above statement. (shrink)

Auf Grund der Vorstellung, dass die Erregungsleitung auf einer Wiedererregung der benachbarten Gewebebezirke durch lokale bioelektrische Ströme beruht, wurde vorher eine mathematische Theorie der Fortpflanzung der Erregung im Nerv entwickelt, welche einige Tatsachen befriedigend darstellt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Theorie auf den Fall angewandt, dass die Erregung von einem Gewebe auf ein anderes übertragen wird, wobei die beiden Gewebe verschiedene elektrische Eigenschaften haben. Es zeigt sich, dass dabei gewisse Bedingungen für die Möglichkeit der Übertragung der Erregung erfüllt sein (...) müssen, welche an den vonL. Lapique geforderten Isochronismus erinnern.Dans deux mémoires précédents nous avons développé une théorie mathématique de la propagation de l'excitation nerveuse, basée sur l'hypothèse, que cette propagation est due à une réexcitation par les courants bioélectriques. Dans le mémoire présent nous étudions le cas de deux tissus adjacents, différents dans leurs constantes électriques, du point de vue du passage de l'excitation d'un tissu sur l'autre. Il se trouve, que pour que ce passage put avoir lieu, certaines relations doivent être satisfaites, des relations qui rappellent l'isochronisme postulé parL. Lapique. (shrink)

Es wird einführungsweise zuerst auf den allgemeinen Zusammenhang zwischen theoretischer und experimenteller Forschung hingewiesen, insbesondere darauf, dass die theoretische Forschung dem Experimentator nicht nur neue Probleme stellt, sondern auch die Ergebnisse vieler Versuche sinnvoll macht, unabhängig davon, ob diese Ergebnisse positiv oder negativ ausfallen. — Danach wird ein kurzer Überblick über einige neuere Ergebnisse der mathematischen Biophysik gemacht und es werden einige fundamentale Probleme der Krebsforschung vom Standpunkte dieser Ergebnisse diskutiert. Es wird auf eine Reihe neuer möglicher Versuche hingewiesen, welche (...) im Lichte der mathematisch-biologischen Forschung wichtige Fragen über die Natur der Tumoren beantworten würden.A titre d'introduction la relation entre les recherches théoriques et expérimentales est soumise à une discussion générale. L'auteur souligne particulièrement la circonstance que les recherches théoriques donnent non seulement des nouveaux problèmes à l'expérimentateur, mais que ces recherches théoriques donnent de la significance aux résultats expérimentaux, même aux résultats négatifs. — Ensuite l'auteur donne une revue générale de quelques nouveaux résultats de la biophysique mathématique. Quelques problèmes fondamentales du cancer sont discutées du point de vue de ces résultats. Des nouvelles expériences possibles qui porteraient à notre connaissance du mécanique intime des tumeurs, sont proposées. (shrink)

In studying various possible physico-chemical interpretations of biological phenomena we arrived by a systematical development of what we have called “Mathematical Biophysics” at the interpretation of even such complex phenomena, as those involved in learning, Gestalt-discrimination and Gestalt-transposition. Yet, in spite of the apparent progress made along this newly trodden road, a sophisticated mind may feel that we are advancing into a peculiar “cul-de-sac.” Indeed we are discussing possible physico-chemical mechanisms underlying the discrimination, recognition and constancy-properties of various spatial forms. (...) Yet we have not touched at all the much more fundamental question, which logically precedes all the above, namely, what can be the physicochemical interpretation of the general and primordial fact that we perceive those forms as spatial? Can we conceive any physicochemical model at all, which would illustrate how and why we experience everything as being in space? (shrink)

Das Vorhandensein bilateraler Asymmetrie bei Organismen ist an und für sich biophysikalisch verständlich. Schwierigkeiten entstehen jedoch beim Versuch die auffallende Ungleichheit in den Häufigkeiten des Vorkommens von Rechts- und Linksasymmetrie biophysikalisch zu deuten. Es werden zwei Möglichkeiten für solch'eine Deutung besprochen. Die eine stützt sich auf die fundamentale Asymmetrie des elektromagnetischen Feldes, und wird als biologisch weniger geeignet angesehen. Die andere, welche dem Verfasser als wahrscheinlicher erscheint, beruht auf der Asymmetrie der organischen Moleküle.L'existence d'une asymétrie bilaterale en général chez des (...) organismes divers n'offre pas de difficulté particulière du point de vue biophysique. Mais les difficultés surgissent quand on tâche de comprendre l'inégalité très prononcée des cas d'asymétrie droite et gauche. Deux possibilités sont discutées dans ce mémoire. L'une repose sur l'asymétrie fondamentale du champs électromagnétique. Cette explication est considérée comme moins probable. Une autre explication qui nous apparaît plus probable, est fondée sur l'asymétrie moléculaire. (shrink)

In our previous writings we have outlined a mathematical theory of biological phenomena. In our systematic construction of “mathematical biology,” similar in its aims to mathematical physics, we have started with the fundamental unit,—the living cell. After having established a physico-mathematical theory of the fundamental properties of the cell, we have studied the interaction of several cells. This led us into two different fields. On the one hand we studied such interactions of cells, which determine the form of cellular aggregates, (...) constituting multicellular organisms. On the other hand we studied different types of functional interactions, which determine the reactions of the aggregate as a whole to different environmental changes. While the first field leads us eventually to the theory of organic form, the second brings us to the physico-mathematical theory of behavior. (shrink)

Following the general program, outlined in a previous paper on the Foundations of Mathematical Biophysics, we shall outline some physico-mathematical aspects of the Gestalt-problem. Faithful to the principles laid down before, we shall not attempt to give a theory of such and such psycho-physiological phenomena connected with our problem, but we shall investigate in a preliminary way the abstract conceptual basis, which must underlie the construction of any concrete theory. To make our aim quite clear and to avoid at the (...) same time unnecessary repetition, we refer the reader to our previous paper. Furthermore we shall give here only an outline of the physico-mathematical aspects; and of necessity we must leave a number of details untouched and unanswered. (shrink)

ABSTRACT:We combine prior research on ethical decision-making in organizations with a rational choice theory of corporate crime from criminology to develop a model of corporate offending that is tested with a sample of U.S. managers. Despite demands for increased sanctioning of corporate offenders, we find that the threat of legal action does not directly affect the likelihood of misconduct. Managers’ evaluations of the ethics of the act, measured using a multidimensional ethics scale, have a significant effect, as do outcome expectancies (...) that result from being associated with the misconduct but not facing formal sanctions. The threat of formal sanctions appears to operate indirectly, influencing ethical evaluations and outcome expectancies. Obedience to authority also affects illegal intentions, with managers reporting higher prospective offending when they are ordered to engage in misconduct by a supervisor. (shrink)

ABSTRACT:We combine prior research on ethical decision-making in organizations with a rational choice theory of corporate crime from criminology to develop a model of corporate offending that is tested with a sample of U.S. managers. Despite demands for increased sanctioning of corporate offenders, we find that the threat of legal action does not directly affect the likelihood of misconduct. Managers’ evaluations of the ethics of the act, measured using a multidimensional ethics scale, have a significant effect, as do outcome expectancies (...) that result from being associated with the misconduct but not facing formal sanctions. The threat of formal sanctions appears to operate indirectly, influencing ethical evaluations and outcome expectancies. Obedience to authority also affects illegal intentions, with managers reporting higher prospective offending when they are ordered to engage in misconduct by a supervisor. (shrink)

Vol. presents a method for critically evaluating relevance in arguments based on case studies & a new relevance theory incorporating techniques of argumentation theory, logic & artificiaI intelligence. For scholars/students in argumentation & rhetoric.

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is an open access, dynamic reference work designed to organize professional philosophers so that they can write, edit, and maintain a reference work in philosophy that is responsive to new research. From its inception, the SEP was designed so that each entry is maintained and kept up to date by an expert or group of experts in the field. All entries and substantive updates are refereed by the members of a distinguished Editorial Board before they (...) are made public. (shrink)

En este artículo, se examinará la visión de Foucault del cuerpo y el surgimiento del cuerpo como un elemento indispensable del poder político. Por lo tanto, se discutirá cómo se objetiva la organización en períodos de poder disciplinario y regulatorio. En el contexto de la regulación del poder, trataremos de mostrar qué dinámica básica corresponde el alma, que es la prisión del cuerpo, al poder y al cuerpo. En ambos períodos, vemos que el poder elie el cuerpo como espacio. El (...) cuerpo representa el cuerpo de la sociedad y funciona como tal. En el estudio, se examinará la captura del alma como un elemento que afecta, moldea, cambia y transforma el cuerpo en la comprensión del poder regulador después del poder disciplinario. En última instancia, dado que este esfuerzo da como resultado la producción de nuevas dinámicas de poder, se intentará mostrar en un contexto crítico que el poder no permite ningún cambio, transformación y mejora de individuos y criminales a quienes percibe como cuerpos. (shrink)

I advance a variety of intellectualism about knowing-how that is, paradoxically, suggested by Ryle's positive discussions of that phenomenon. I discuss the roots of the view in Ryle's work, its affinity with John Hyman's () view of factual knowledge, and important points of contrast with Stanley and Williamson's () proposal. Drawing on work by Cath () and Wiggins () I also discuss conditions on knowing practically, in ‘the executive way’, as an alternative to appealing to practical modes of presentation.

Le concept de conflit revêt divers aspects. Entre les litiges, les violences, les différends, les désaccords, les guerres, il importe de définir les éléments de la conflictualité et le caractère institutionnel des recherches en matière de gestion et de résolution des conflits de nos jours. Néanmoins, nous sommes parvenus à percevoir que la clé du succès des résolutions des conflits pour une paix durable réside dans l’expérience humaine de la culpabilité et du pardon. Ce n’est certes pas des éléments nouveaux (...) pour les spécialistes et les diplomates en matière de gestion des conflits. Cependant, Ces deux notions sont reléguées au second plan au profit de compromis et de mesures coercitives à l’encontre des factions en conflits. Notre vision de la résolution des conflits est que sans la mise en exergue de l’expérience de la culpabilité et du pardon, les peuples vivront dans un conflit perpétuel qu’ils transmettront aux générations futures : la haine durable (sustainablehate). Est-il possible d’institutionnaliser le pardon et de mener des actions conduisant à une véritable culpabilité collective et individuelle préalable à toute réconciliation durable des peuples? La nature et la fréquence de nos conflits obligent à reconsidérer les méthodes d’approche jusqu’ici utilisées. En effet, c’est ce que tentent de faire certaines commissions pour la réconciliation appelée pour la plupart « Dialogue – Vérité – Réconciliation ; Dialogue – Justice – Réconciliation ; justice et paix, etc ». où les belligérants, les bourreaux et les victimes sont invités à l’aveu, à la vérité et au pardon pour un re-vivre ensemble. Mais dans l’espace d’un processus de réconciliation engagé à travers desdites commissions, les ballets de confessions aussi bien que les sentiments de victimisation se succèdent avant à l’arrière fond l’amnistie pour les bourreaux et l’octroi du pardon de la part des victimes. Cela, parait peu convainquant pour la raison que ces commissions sont en majeure partie installées par les vainqueurs du moment. Dans une certaine Afrique surtout, ces derniers (les vainqueurs) sont aidés par des alliés occidentaux de hauts niveaux. Il s’agit alors de processus où la paix est provisoire et se maintient au bout de la force ; et où les bourreaux sont toujours les autres. (shrink)

You might think a simple “No” would suffice as an answer. But there are features of Kant’s ethics that appear to be strikingly similar to virtue oriented views, so striking that some Kantians themselves have argued that Kant’s ethics in fact shares these features with virtue ethics. In what follows, I will argue against this view, though along the way I will acknowledge the features of Kant’s view that make it appear more like a kind of virtue ethics than it (...) really is. My plan is to first set out the distinctive features of what is nowadays called “virtue ethics”, those features that make it a genuine alternative to other normative theories. I then consider the features Kant’s view might share in common with virtue ethics and the case for saying that it is, therefore, fundamentally the same sort of theory. I follow these two sections with an argument against this position. I want to warn you at the outset, however, that my argument itself will be quite unsurprising, since it is an argument that has been central to the way in which most philosophers have understood Kant’s ethics. Any novelty I can claim here is in my account of what makes virtue ethics a genuine alternative to other normative theories, and my defense of this argument against those, in particular Barbara Herman, who have apparently found the argument unpersuasive. (shrink)

A "slippery slope argument" is a type of argument in which a first step is taken and a series of inextricable consequences follow, ultimately leading to a disastrous outcome. Many textbooks on informal logic and critical thinking treat the slippery slope argument as a fallacy. Walton argues that used correctly in some cases, they can be a reasonable type of argument to shift a burden of proof in a critical discussion, while in other cases they are used incorrectly. Walton identifies (...) and analyzes four types of slippery slope argument. Walton presents guidelines that show how each type of slippery slope argument can be used correctly or incorrectly, using over fifty case studies of argumentation on controversial issues. These include abortion, medical research on human embryos, euthanasia, the decriminalization of marijuana, pornography, and censorship, and banning of American flag burning. (shrink)

First-2d ed. published under title: Manual de introduccion a la ciencia del derecho.

When making decisions, humans can observe many kinds of information about others' activities, but their effects on performance are not well understood. We investigated social learning strategies using a simple problem-solving task in which participants search a complex space, and each can view and imitate others' solutions. Results showed that participants combined multiple sources of information to guide learning, including payoffs of peers' solutions, popularity of solution elements among peers, similarity of peers' solutions to their own, and relative payoffs from (...) individual exploration. Furthermore, performance was positively associated with imitation rates at both the individual and group levels. When peers' payoffs were hidden, popularity and similarity biases reversed, participants searched more broadly and randomly, and both quality and equity of exploration suffered. We conclude that when peers' solutions can be effectively compared, imitation does not simply permit scrounging, but it can also facilitate propagation of good solutions for further cumulative exploration. (shrink)

Science provides us with representations of atoms, elementary particles, polymers, populations, genetic trees, economies, rational decisions, aeroplanes, earthquakes, forest fires, irrigation systems, and the world’s climate. It's through these representations that we learn about the world. This entry explores various different accounts of scientific representation, with a particular focus on how scientific models represent their target systems. As philosophers of science are increasingly acknowledging the importance, if not the primacy, of scientific models as representational units of science, it's important to (...) stress that how they represent plays a fundamental role in how we are to answer other questions in the philosophy of science (e.g. the scientific realism debate). This entry begins by disentangling ‘the’ problem of scientific representation, before critically evaluating the current options available in the literature. (shrink)

This book identifies 25 argumentation schemes for presumptive reasoning and matches a set of critical questions to each.

The so-called ergodic hierarchy (EH) is a central part of ergodic theory. It is a hierarchy of properties that dynamical systems can possess. Its five levels are egrodicity, weak mixing, strong mixing, Kolomogorov, and Bernoulli. Although EH is a mathematical theory, its concepts have been widely used in the foundations of statistical physics, accounts of randomness, and discussions about the nature of chaos. We introduce EH and discuss its applications in these fields.