Rozwój logiki był możliwy dzięki stworzeniu języka formalnego, którego symbolika była ciągle doskonalona. Autor artykułu analizuje przyczyny dostarczania przez alfabet znaków (symboli) oznaczających elementy, na których dokonuje się operacji logicznych. W pierwszej części rozpatruje użycie symboli alfabetycznych. Alfabet (jako zbiór liter ) tworzy kod o charakterze fonetycznym. Wykorzystanie notacji alfabetycznej łączy się z defonetyzacją alfabetu. W drugiej części autor odwołuje się do dążeń Fregego, przekonanego, że język może być wyłącznie pismem. Jednak niepowodzenie w konstruowaniu grafów całkowicie adekwatnych do potrzeb arytmetyki (...) doprowadziło Fregego do odrzucenia idei "myśli czystej". Postawił on pytanie, czy zapis logiczny mógłby być łączony z innym źródłem poznania a priori, jakim jest intuicja geometryczna, przy czym grafy wykorzystujące intuicję przestrzeni musiałyby być degeometryzowane. W końcu autor stawia pytanie, czy wymagania dowodowe rozumowań w logice mogą obejść się bez tego aspektu zachowanego przez pismo alfabetyczne, jakim jest liniowość, czyli ciągłość łańcucha myśli. (shrink)

After the discovery of the anthropoid ape in Asia and in Africa, eighteenth-century Holland became the crossroads of Enlightenment debates about the human species. Material evidence about human diversity reached Petrus Camper, comparative anatomist in the Netherlands, who engaged, among many other interests, in menschkunde. Could only religious doctrine support the belief of human demarcation from animals? Camper resolved the challenges raised by overseas discoveries with his thesis of the facial angle, a theory which succeeding generations distorted and misused in (...) order to justify slavery, racism, antisemitism, and genocide. Thanks to his abundant papers in Dutch archives, Camper's ideas are restored to their original state. Eighteenth-century issues differed from those of other centuries: Did orang-utans talk like humans, walk like humans; even rape humans? What was the skin pigmentation of Adam and Eve? Did the spectrum of human physiognomies around the globe reflect the Fall of Man, the Creator's bounty, or merely bizarre beauty practices? Why did the ideal beauty of the Greeks appear to be the reverse of the Hottentots? The book contains some 50 illustrations, including apes with hiking sticks or tea cups, metamorphoses of living forms, and Apollo or Venus icons which titillated the science of man. (shrink)

It is puzzling to notice that in his 1784 essay on Enlightenment, Kant addresses every human being with his watchword « Have the courage to use your own understanding! », while at the same time he seems to restrict the access to the public discussion of matters of common interest to the learned persons. This begs the question: Is the participation in the public debate part and parcel of Kant’s conception of Aufklärung? A positive answer to this question is given (...) by Katerina Deligiorgi in her Kant and the Culture of Enlightenment. A critical assessment of this book will lead us however to consider that Kant has a differentiated approach to enlightenment depending on whether someone is educated or uneducated. Following Rousseau, Kant has come to recognize as a matter of fact this inequality toward the products of culture. Now the two-level conception of enlightenment entailed by this inequality becomes explicit in the 1790s, especially in the very last work Kant has published: The Conflict of the Faculties. (shrink)

Découvert récemment, le premier cours de Paul Tillich sur la philosophie de la religion montre à quel point la philosophie critique de Kant fut une influence déterminante sur la genèse de la pensée tillichienne. Tillich applique la méthode critique de manière ingénieuse pour définir la fonction religieuse. Il voit également dans la notion kantienne de l’inconditionné l’amorce d’une saisie intuitive de la nature irréductiblement irrationnelle de la religion. Pour Tillich, ce noyau mystique du rationalisme kantien mène tout droit au mysterium (...) tremendum et fascinans de la phénoménologie religieuse de Rudolf Otto. Mais Tillich va plus loin en affirmant que notre orientation fondamentale vers l’inconditionné constitue le vrai point de départ du religieux, même lorsque cela se fait sous un déguisement profane. (shrink)

Reading Nietzsche, knowing humanism -- Nietzsche's humanist genealogy -- In the region of likeness: family resemblances -- A single web of meaning -- All in one: horizon, goal, and doctrine -- Nietzsche the terrible -- Reprise and ascent -- Nietzsche's works -- Bibliography -- Index.

In many species of reptiles, sex is determined at fertilization by zygotic sex chromosome composition. In other species, including all crocodilians, most turtles and some lizards, sex is determined by temperature during the earlier stages of gonadal differentiation. The effects of exogenous estrogens, antiestrogens and aromatase inhibitors at different temperatures have unambiguously demonstrated the involvement of estrogens in sexual differentiation of the gonads. Aromatase is the enzyme that converts androgens to estrogens. Gonadal aromatase activity is well correlated with gonadal structure. (...) It increases exponentially in differentiating ovaries, whereas it remains low in differentiating testes. Moreover, there is a high correlation between the thermosensitive periods for both ovary differentiation and increase in aromatase activity. We suggest that a thermosensitive factor intervenes, directly or indirectly, in the transcriptional regulation of the aromatase gene in reptiles with temperature‐dependent sex determination. (shrink)

Faced with multiple changes in education, teachers must adapt to the diversity of learner profiles now integrated into regular classes. Our study focuses on a two-pronged support system (group and individual) to support the professional development of school teachers. The creation of dialogical spaces has stimulated exchanges in addition of challenging ideas and values to build new benchmarks that guide the work. The results show that the support provided has encouraged the adoption of practices oriented towards inclusive education principles and (...) helped to develop a common vision within the school team. (shrink)

Le début du fr. 21 DK d’Empédocle concerne les manifestations des quatre éléments dans le monde autour de nous. D’après le contexte, le référent de l’adjectif substantivé ambrota, au vers 4, concernerait l’air ou quelque chose intimement lié à l’air. Le mot ambrota se trouve enchâssé dans un développement sur le soleil, qui suggère le passage homérique du voile d’Héra d’un blanc éclatant comme le soleil. À partir de là et grâce à l’interprétation livrée par Aétius selon laquelle la racine (...) divine Héra, chez Empédocle, est l’air, il vient que les ambrota, souvent associés à heimata (les vêtements immortels) dans les vers épiques, désigneraient une Héra vêtue. Les vêtements qui dissimulent Héra, la déesse qu’il faut associer aux ambrota, seraient les nuages blancs, essentiellement faits d’air. L’explication repose sur une matrice thématique inscrite dans des vers épiques. Une présentation du chœur des Nuées d’Aristophane apporterait un écho à la conception empédocléenne des ambrota compris comme des nuages blancs. (shrink)

Warum muss Strafe sein? Die Beiträge betreffen zunächst aktuelle Strafbegründungstheorien, insbesondere solche, die in der Strafe einen Tadel sehen. Eine klare Unterscheidbarkeit zwischen absoluten und relativen Straftheorien wird heute nicht selten bezweifelt.

On est porté à sous-estimer le rôle authentiquement productif de la raison dans la Dialectique transcendantale de la Critique de la raison pure. Cet article propose une illustration de ce rôle à l'occasion des Paralogismes de la raison pure, qui ne sont rendus possibles que sur la base d'une fiction négative opérée à partir du sens interne. Cette illustration s'inscrit dans la perspective plus large d'une interprétation de la Dialectique transcendantale en vertu d'une théorie du schématisme, laissée au second plan (...) par Kant en raison de la prépondérance des motivations critiques.We tend to underestimate the authentically productive role of reason in the Transcendental Dialectic of the Critique of Pure Reason. This paper suggests an illustration of this role as it can be traced in the Paralogisms of Pure Reason, which themselves became possible on the basis of a negative fiction exerted toward the inner sense. This illustration is part of a larger perspective aiming at an interpretation of the Transcendental Dialectic on the ground of a theory of schematism, which is somehow overshadowed by Kant's critical intentions. (shrink)

When we reconstruct Fichte's philosophy of nature of the Jena period, we notice striking similarities between the conception of organism in theDoctrine of Scienceand Schelling's corresponding developments in his earlyNaturphilosophie.Even though both thinkers agree to consider organic nature within the framework of transcendental idealism, it is nevertheless possible at this stage to discover slight differences in their interpretation which announce their future disagreement on the status of a philosophy of nature. If, for instance, organism for both Fichte and Schelling can (...) be considered as ananalogonof the absolute, much depends on whether they conceive this analogy from a practical or theoretical point of view. (shrink)

»Als dies geschrieben wurde, war das Verständnis für Fichtes Bedeutung noch geringer als heute. Ganz allmählich bricht sich die Einsicht Bahn, wieviel von diesem großen Denker gerade für die Transzendentalphilosophie zu lernen ist., S. 95.«.

»Als dies geschrieben wurde, war das Verständnis für Fichtes Bedeutung noch geringer als heute. Ganz allmählich bricht sich die Einsicht Bahn, wieviel von diesem großen Denker gerade für die Transzendentalphilosophie zu lernen ist., S. 95.«.

The aim of this paper is to set out some features of Kant’s conception of transcendental philosophy. I would like to argue that this philosophy, although it is situated at a higher level of discourse than common knowledge, does not essentially transcend the limits that it sets to this knowledge. In order to achieve this, I stress the fact that Kant regards experience as a mere “possibility.” Now, the Critique of Pure Reason explains that the human understanding cannot conceive of (...) an absolute possibility, but only a relative one, namely a possibility that is tied to conditions. And possible experience as a whole is no exception here. Hence the expression “conditions of the possibility of experience” which designates the topic of the Transcendental Analytic. This also means that experience is “contingent”. It is not in itself necessary; rather, it is dependent upon certain conditions. But then we learn that the most important transcendental conditions for this experience, i.e., the dynamic principles, are themselves “contingent”. Consequently, these transcendental conditions are not unconditioned; they in turn depend on empirical conditions, over which they have no control. (shrink)