In this paper, we present a reinterpretation of Roman Ingarden's theory of intentional objects. There are four types of intentional objects in Ingarden's ontology, we offer a detailed analyses of an intentional object that is a correlate of a text. Such an object is characterised by Ingarden as a two-sided and schematised formation. We focus on the notion of schematism. We classify different interpretations of schematism and propose our own definition of schematism of a purely intentional object.

Papers presented at the International Seminar 'Logic and Belief in Indian Philosophy : the Impact of Indian Thought in Asia and Europe', held at Bialowierza from 30 April to 5 May, 2006.

The measure of trust that people vest in their fellow citizens or institutions depends on three factors: the `reflected trustworthiness' of the target as estimated by themselves in a more or less rational manner, the attitude of `basic trustfulness' deriving from socialization, and the `culture of trust' pervading their society and normatively encouraging the trusting orientation. The author presents a model of a structural context conducive for the emergence of the culture of trust, and then argues that democratic organization contributes (...) to trust-generating conditions, such as normative certainty, transparency, stability, and accountability. This influence is found to be doubly paradoxical. First, democracy breeds the culture of trust by institutionalizing distrust at many levels of democratic organization. And second, the strongest influence of democracy on the culture of trust may be expected when the institutionalized distrust remains a resource used sparingly and only when there appear significant breaches of trust. (shrink)

Was Heidegger a 'realist' or an 'idealist'? The issue has been and continues to be hotly debated in Heidegger scholarship. Here it is argued that the much more desirable realistic interpretation of Heidegger can be sustained, provided his theory of moods is given its due. Moods, I argue, are not only 'equiprimordial' with Dasein's understanding of being, but are also irreducible to the latter. It is often held - correctly, as it seems to the author - that Heidegger's idealism is (...) all but inevitable if Dasein's awareness of entities is grounded only in Dasein's understanding of being. But in Being and Time Heidegger speaks also of how what there is is 'disclosed moodwise'. The essay closely analyzes this specifically moody mode of disclosure, and shows both its autonomy vis-à-vis the understanding of being and its function of securing, for Dasein, an access to a truly independent reality. (shrink)

On the base of the classical logic the connectives of necessity and possibility have the equivalent positions in this sense that each of them is definable by the other one. The consequence of this fact is the possibility to define of the both modalities using the connective of identity. Thus, the connective of propositional identity defining the congruence of the propositional language has become the base of the reconstruction of necessity operator in some modal systems. Already in 1957 Greniewski [9] (...) obtained system S5 on the base of the propositional calculus with identity. Next, Cresswell [3], [4] reconstructed S4 and S5 in a similar way. Systematic investigations of this problem were undertaken by Suszko within the broader frame of SCI programme [16], [17], [18]. The connections between modal connectives and the connective of identity settle some philosophical sense of both modalities. Something is necessary, if it is identical with a logical truth. If something is different from the negation of some logical truth, it is possible. It is however, the “ontological” characteristics typical for modalities defined on the base of the classical logic. The settling of similar connections between intuitionistic identity and intuitionistic modalities uncover the philosophical sense of the “epistemic” necessity and possibility. Unfortunately, the symmetry between the classical and intuitionistic case is not entire. The acceptance of both equalities: = ¬ ¬ and = ¬ ¬, in the intuitionistic logic yields the classical versions of both modalities . Thus, there is a problem with defining the connective of intuitionistic possibility by the connective of identity. In Sections 2 and 3 two “partial” solutions of the mentioned problem are presented. They are “partial” because the connective of possibility has undesirable properties. The second solution yields the strengthening of the necessity connective, too. The main aim of this paper is obtained in Section 5, where a definition of the intuitionistic possibility is given. This definition uses the new connective of nonidentity, presented in Section 4. The new approach bases on the idea that some connectives like implication, negation, identity, necessity are “Heyting's” ones. The case of possibility is different. Together with coimplication, weak negation, and nonidentity, possibility belongs to the so-called “Brouwerian” connectives. The connectives of the first kind have such property that in Kripke's style semantics their interpretations in each point of this semantics are related to the interpretations in next points. In the case of the “Brouwerian” connectives the interpretations in each point depend on the interpretations in previous points. In this sense, “Heyting's” connectives are interpreted from the point of view of the future, while the interpretations of the “Brouwerian” connectives are from the point of view of the past. The relations between nonidentity and possibility connectives allow to say that in temporal semantics something is possible in the moment a, if before a there was such moment b in which it was different from the contradiction. Thus, “something is possible” does not mean that it held once in the past. A broader philosophical remarks about the nature of intuitionistic possibility are contained in two Comments in the last Section. (shrink)

Autor mówił o roli dziennikarza muzycznego i DJ-a w radiu publicznym. Podzielił swoje obowiązki na pięć kategorii: granie audycji DJ-skich, przygotowywanie programów autorskich, programów publicystycznych, prezentowanie bloków muzycznych oraz oprawę muzyczną.

The idea of belief revision is strictly connected with the notion of contraction given by the set of postulates formulated by Alchourrón, Gärdenfors and Makinson. In the present paper expansion and contraction are defined by Tarski's consequence relation and Tarski-like elimination relation. The logic of falsehood (i.e. a logic dual in Wójcicki's sense to the given logic of truth) plays a key role for defining the elimination relation. A decision of adding or refusing of some sentences is arbitrary and depends (...) on our wish only. This decision cannot be logical and logic cannot justify it. In our approach logic is a tool for faultless and precise realization of extension or reducing of the set of our beliefs. Step forward extends the set of our beliefs and it is used when some new belief appears. Step backward reduces the set of our beliefs and it is used when we reject from some previously accepted belief. But why some "initial" sentences should be added or refused depends on extralogical reasons. The logic for the back-reasoning uses the class of models adequate for the logic extending the set of our beliefs. However, the class is used in a specific i.e. dual form. That is why the step forward (expansion) and the step backward (contraction) constitute the one whole. Procedure of contraction satisfies the well known AGM postulates. We limit our considerations to first six conditions for contraction. Satisfaction of almost every postulate is a good sign that our approach is reasonable. The only exception we make for the controversial fifth postulate. (shrink)

A few years ago, believing that human thinking is nonmonotonic, I tried to reconstruct a nonmonotonic reasoning by application of two monotonic procedures. I called them “step forward” and “step backward” . The first procedure is just a consequence operation responsible for an extension of the set of beliefs. The second one, defined on the base of the logic of falsehood reconstructed for the given logic of truthfulness, is responsible for a reduction of the set of beliefs. Both procedures taken (...) together were successfully verified by using so-called AGM , postulates for expansion, contraction and revision formulated by Alchourrón, Gärdenfors and Makinson . Reasoning composed of the mutual application of both procedures seemed to be quite natural for modeling our thinking. At that time, I supposed that it should be nonmonotonic but I was wrong. It turned out impossible to satisfy a definition of the nonmonotonic inference by reasoning composed both steps. To understand why this is impossible, I began to analyze how nonmonotonicity is obtainable in some well-known cases in the literature. I analyzed the problem from two points of view: non-formal examples for nonmonotonicity and formal constructions of nonmonotonic operations/relations. The result of those investigations was astonishing: none of the considered by me cases of nonmonotonicity belonging to point and almost none belonging to satisfies the definition of nonmonotonic inference. Arguments against the nonmonotonic character of well-known examples for nonmonotonicity of human thinking are more precisely presented in [6]. I present them below an abbreviated version of them. (shrink)

The article focuses on the anti-naturalism of Menger and Mises. It presents a methodological approach formulated by both scholars as stemming from epistemological anti-naturalism and demonstrating similarities to social phenomenology. The article also discusses the development of the anti-naturalistic perspective on the basis of Hayek’s conception of sensory order. The latter allowed addressing the problem of validity of methodological dualism and established a sound foundation for the methodological approach of the Austrian School of Economics.

In my paper I present a critique of Dorota Brylla’s interpretation of the dialogue by Nicholas of Cusa - De Deo abscondito, and a critique of her stance on apophatic theology. I consider Brylla’s position an exemplification of a more widespread philosophical point of view in terms of both the interpretation of Nicholas thought and the apophatic tradition as such. I also present an alternative reading of both his dialogue and apophatic theology. Finally, I point out some implications of adopting (...) my position for philosophical theology and the philosophy of religion. (shrink)

Bioethics is a fairly new, but very popular, discipline broadly present in the public debate of the Western Societies. It deals with difficult tasks and challenges faced by scientists to find ethical, social or political solutions to various problems created by modern science and technological growth. An impressive exploration of several bioethical issues can be found in the works of the Polish Jesuit, philosopher and, now a retired professor, Tadeusz Ślipko. For decades, his scientific attention, apart from theoretical topics, was (...) focused on the issues important to everyday human life. He placed a lot of emphasis on finding ethical solutions to the difficult issues discussed in the postwar Poland. He authored the first Polish ethical monograph devoted exclusively to modern problems of medical and technological development and titled Limits of Life. Dilemmas of the Modern Bioethics, first published in 1988 and reprinted in 1994. (shrink)

We współczesnych dyskusjach dotyczących szczegółowych zagadnień z zakresu etyki medycznej sporo uwagi poświęca się kwestii odstąpienia od interwencji medycznej lub zasadności stosowania pewnych rodzajów terapii nie rokujących poprawy stanu zdrowia chorej osoby. W publikacjach autorów chrześcijańskich tematyka ta nie zajmowała nigdy centralnego miejsca, aczkolwiek różnego typu kwestie dotyczące kontynuacji bądź przerwania leczenia znaleźć można już na kartach wczesnochrześcijańskich filozoficznych i teologicznych traktatów i rozpraw. Dopiero współcześnie w związku z szybkim rozwojem nauk medycznych poświęca się temu zagadnieniu więcej uwagi. Niniejszy artykuł (...) przedstawia poglądy wybranych wczesnochrześcijańskich i scholastycznych myślicieli na kwestię odstąpienia od interwencji medycznych. Zachowane do naszych czasów teksty i opinie różnych autorów pozwoli nam, w pewnym stopniu, zrozumieć historyczny kontekst oraz kulturowe uwarunkowania proponowanych wówczas rozstrzygnięć etycznych. (shrink)

We współczesnych dyskusjach dotyczących szczegółowych zagadnień z zakresu etyki medycznej sporo uwagi poświęca się kwestii odstąpienia od interwencji medycznej lub zasadności stosowania pewnych rodzajów terapii nie rokujących poprawy stanu zdrowia chorej osoby. W publikacjach autorów chrześcijańskich tematyka ta nie zajmowała nigdy centralnego miejsca, aczkolwiek różnego typu kwestie dotyczące kontynuacji bądź przerwania leczenia znaleźć można już na kartach wczesnochrześcijańskich filozoficznych i teologicznych traktatów i rozpraw. Dopiero współcześnie w związku z szybkim rozwojem nauk medycznych poświęca się temu zagadnieniu więcej uwagi. Niniejszy artykuł (...) przedstawia poglądy wybranych wczesnochrześcijańskich i scholastycznych myślicieli na kwestię odstąpienia od interwencji medycznych. Zachowane do naszych czasów teksty i opinie różnych autorów pozwoli nam, w pewnym stopniu, zrozumieć historyczny kontekst oraz kulturowe uwarunkowania proponowanych wówczas rozstrzygnięć etycznych. (shrink)

The Hellenic medical ideas have found appreciation among people over centuries. Though the initial concept remained the same, methods or ways to achieve desired aims have changed. Since Hippocrates, new generations of physicians have worked hard to find more powerful types of therapies to relieve their patients and make treatment less burdensome. The struggle of medicine is very specific and requires, apart from practical skills, a clear personal commitment to help people wisely. From the Early Antiquity, both medicine and medical (...) ethics go together. Wherever Hippocratic medicine is practiced, an appropriate moral pattern accompanies it because the Hellenic doctor offered purely clinical data and his art should not be separated from anthropology, ethics and religion. (shrink)

The Hellenic medical ideas have found appreciation among people over centuries. Though the initial concept remained the same, methods or ways to achieve desired aims have changed. Since Hippocrates, new generations of physicians have worked hard to find more powerful types of therapies to relieve their patients and make treatment less burdensome. The struggle of medicine is very specific and requires, apart from practical skills, a clear personal commitment to help people wisely. From the Early Antiquity, both medicine and medical (...) ethics go together. Wherever Hippocratic medicine is practiced, an appropriate moral pattern accompanies it because the Hellenic doctor offered purely clinical data and his art should not be separated from anthropology, ethics and religion. (shrink)

This article presents a general overview of philosophical issues undertaken in the work of Richard Otowicz, Jesuit and Professor of Moral Theology at the Pontifical Faculty of Theology in Warsaw. Within the set of views developed by him, the theological perspective undoubtedly assumes pride of place. Often, however, he refers to philosophical issues from which, in his opinion, one cannot escape—issues that bear directly on human life. What is especially striking is Otowicz’s hypothesis that bioethics is a kind of self-defense (...) reflex of mankind, who are attempting by means of it to intellectually grasp the issues relating to the unlimited expansion of technology. Developments and changes observed in the world are forcing humanity to rethink very fundamental issues, such as interpersonal relationships or the relationship of man to nature. (shrink)

This article presents a general overview of philosophical issues undertaken in the work of Richard Otowicz, Jesuit and Professor of Moral Theology at the Pontifical Faculty of Theology in Warsaw. Within the set of views developed by him, the theological perspective undoubtedly assumes pride of place. Often, however, he refers to philosophical issues from which, in his opinion, one cannot escape—issues that bear directly on human life. What is especially striking is Otowicz’s hypothesis that bioethics is a kind of self-defense (...) reflex of mankind, who are attempting by means of it to intellectually grasp the issues relating to the unlimited expansion of technology. Developments and changes observed in the world are forcing humanity to rethink very fundamental issues, such as interpersonal relationships or the relationship of man to nature. (shrink)

There is a long-standing dispute among scholars concerning Berkeley’s supposed commitment to an emotivist theory of meaning as the very first (and an early modern) instance of non-cognitivism. According to this position, the domains of religious and moral language do not refer to facts about the world, but rather express the emotional attitudes of religious or moral language users. Some scholars involved in the dispute argue for taking Berkeley to be an emotivist (non-cognitivist), while others hold that we should not (...) do so. This paper puts forward an interpretation that lends support to the non-cognitivist reading of his stance, but in expressivist rather than emotivist terms. It argues that the label “expressivism” does more justice to the textual evidence concerning his understanding of moral language, as what is distinctive where this philosopher is concerned is his interest in explaining the nature of our practice of employing moral language (i.e. how we come to formulate moral statements as expressions of our non-referential attitudes, and the meta-level considerations pertaining to morality associated with this), rather than whether morality is just a matter of our emotions or feelings (i.e. such first-order considerations about morality as whether moral rightness and wrongness correspond merely to our emotional states). (shrink)

In this paper I examine Hugh Burling’s inspiring proposal that the reference of ‘God’ is determined by the description: ‘the being worthy of our worship’. I argue that a more detailed analysis of the notion of being worthy of our worship leads to the conclusion that the proposed description is paradoxical, and cannot fulfill the role Burling would like it to play in determining the reference of the term ‘God’. Subsequently, I provide several examples implying that being worthy of our (...) worship is a necessary condition for any candidate to be the referent of the term ‘God’, but the semantics of ‘God’ is considerably more complicated than Burling takes it to be. Finally, I show that religious people who use the word ‘God’ are either idolatrous or trapped in an apophatic paradox of the reference of ‘God’. (shrink)

Artykuł traktuje o relacjach ateizmu i sekularyzmu. Podstawowym problemem rozważanym w tekście jest pytanie o to, czy trzeba być ateistą, żeby być sekularystą. Pojęcia sekularyzmu i ateizmu przedstawiamy na tle historycznym, a następnie analizujemy w taki sposób, by uzyskać możliwie pełną odpowiedź na nasze pytanie. Analizie poddane zostały teoretyczne możliwości kształtowania relacji religii i państwa, a także konsekwencje, jakie wypływają z poszczególnych form kształtowania tych relacji. Sądzimy, że o ile rozumieć ateizm jako niewiarę w Boga/bogów, a sekularyzm jako nieużywanie teologicznych (...) uzasadnień w decyzjach politycznych, o tyle nie trzeba być ateistą, by być sekularystą, z drugiej zaś strony warto być sekularystą będąc człowiekiem religijnym, bo to sekularyzm jako zasada polityczna gwarantuje prawo do wyznawania i praktykowania religii. (shrink)

W Deklaracji o przerywaniu ciąży z 1974, Kościół Katolicki argumentuje, że zygota jest człowiekiem ponieważ posiada ludzki genotyp. Artykuł przedstawia logiczną analizę tej argumentacji. Pokazuje, że argumentacja ta jest w dużym stopniu wadliwa. Tomizm pełni tu funkcję uprawo-mocnienia. Entymematyczne założenia tomistyczne są niezbędne, by w ogóle możliwe było przejście od przesłanek do wniosku. Okazuje się ponadto, że argumentacja ta zakłada tomistyczną interpretację pojęć biologicznych, która jest niezgodna ze współczesną wiedzą biologiczną. Twierdzenie zawarte w Deklaracji nie zostało więc skutecznie uargumentowane na (...) gruncie biologii, a wręcz wydaje się, że biologia je wyklucza. Jest ono możliwe jedynie jako twierdzenie metafizyczne i wyłącznie na gruncie pewnych metafizyk. (shrink)

THE GRAMMAR OF RELIGIOUS “TO BELIEVE” IN THE CONTEXT OF LANGUAGES GAMES Wittgenstein’s philosophy of religion is not very well known in polish philosophical literature. His conception of language-games is sometimes vague. The article presents the problem of faith and religion in the context of Wittgenstein's language-games. The trouble with it is lack of precise definition of language-game. Still, under certain conditions, we can discuss faith and religion from the perspective of languagegames. It becomes possible to indicate a specific religious (...) language which could be treated as a language-game. Three components characteristic for language-games - some set of words (vocabulary), grammar, and form of life (which is inseparably related to language-game) - could be separated also for religious language. In the face of studies, faith appears as inseparably related to activity. That means that the believer is pushed to specified activities, and we can't talk about faith without these activities. Faith is a "picture" which affects the lives of believers and forms them. (shrink)

This book is a manifesto of reformed Stoicism. It proposes a system of life which is bullet-proof, universal, viable and effective in every cosmic setting. It holds in every possible universe, under any government and within any economic system. We can be reformed Stoics no matter what we believe in. Reformed Stoicism is about enjoying and exercising our agency. In other words, it's about the flow of making autonomous and right decisions, and about celebrating our ability to make them. With (...) no reliance on nature, with the recalibration of metaphysical positions, with skepticism towards grand discourses and universal answers, with an emphasis on the usefulness instead of truthfulness of narratives, with no reference to the vanity argument, with criticism of both conservative and ascetic misinterpretations of Stoicism, with an overall softer and more empathic approach, we can no longer be defined by the generic term "Stoicism". Our time, in short, calls for a fresh interpretation of Stoicism. It is time for a new generation of Stoics. Thus: reformed Stoicism. (shrink)

The articles in this collection focus on philosophical approaches to proper names. The issues discussed include abstract names, empty names, naming and name-using practices, definite descriptions, individuals, reference, designation, sense and semantics. The contributions show the importance and lasting influence of theories proposed by John Stuart Mill, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Donald Davidson, and Saul Kripke. Individual chapters assess traditional analyses and modern controversies, and contribute to the debate on proper names in contemporary philosophy of language.