From Einstein's point of view, his General Relativity Theory had strengths as well as failings. For him, its shortcoming mainly was that it did not unify gravitation and electromagnetism and did not provide solutions to field equations which can be interpreted as particle models with discrete mass and charge spectra, As a consequence, General Relativity did not solve the quantum problem, either. Einstein tried to get rid of the shortcomings without losing the achievements of General Relativity Theory. Stimulated by papers (...) of Weyl 465) and Eddington 194), from 1923 onward, he believed that, to reach this goal, one has to transit to space–times which possess more comprehensive geometrical structures than the Riemann space–time. This was the beginning of a decade's lasting search for a unitary field theory. We describe this exciting part of the history of physics, discuss achievements and failures of this development, and ask how these early attempts of a unified theory strike us today. Taking into account the fact that the Equivalence Principle only speaks for a geometrization of gravitation, we consider an alternative way to give those non-Riemannian structures which were introduced by the unitary field approach a physical meaning, namely the meaning of a generalized gravitational field. This is interesting since there are arguments in favor of such a generalization of General Relativity Theory, e.g., the problems the latter theory meets with if one tries to quantize it and to unify gravitation with other interactions. (shrink)

Die Physik unserer Zeit ist ohne die Arbeiten Albert Einsteins undenkbar. Zu seinen wichtigsten wissenschaftlichen Leistungen gehören die Begründung der Speziellen und Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie, die Mitbegründung der Quantenund Atomphysik und die Ausgestaltung all dieser Theorien. Seine eigentliche Ambition ging aber über das von ihm Erreichte hinaus. Er beabsichtigte, eine einheitliche physikalische Theorie begründen. Diese wollte er nicht durch eine Verbindung der Gesetze der klassischen Felder mit den Regeln der Quantenphysik, sondern durch die Verallgemeinerung seiner Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie gewinnen. Denn letztere hatte (...) eine gegenüber der vorgängigen Physik epochale Änderung der Beziehung von Geometrie und Physik bewirkt. Gemäß Einsteins Programm einer einheitlichen Theorie sollten alle physikalischen Felder und Teilchen als Konfigurationen eines einheitlichen geometrischen Feldes, das die Struktur der Raum-Zeit-Welt bestimmt, ableitbar sein. Grenzen und Perspektiven dieses Programms werden diskutiert. (shrink)

From both physical and epistemological viewpoints, the following theses, which nowadays are often discussed in the literature, are examined: Nonlinear thermodynamics renders it possible to grasp evolutionary physical processes; for thermodynamics it introduces, instead of idealized reversible time, a directed time into physics; thus a science is established that is nearer to reality than classical physics. To analyze these theses, the relation of thermodynamics to dynamical physics is considered. In particular, it is demonstrated that, in classical as well as in (...) modern thermodynamics, irreversibility is introduced via conditions which must be formulated in addition to the dynamical laws. To show the reason for this, the epistemological status of the physical time conception is analyzed, and its character as a physical measurement quantity is established. (shrink)

The ArgumentThe idea of evolution doubtlessly marks a revolution in our way of thinking. It is the most recent achievement of philosophy and forms the basis of the modern world picture. Current discussions concerning the status of science now convey the impression that any scientific discipline that wants to satisfy modern requirements must also become a theory of evolution. These discussions ignore the reasons which once induced Kant to desist from reformulating classical mechanics as a theory of evolution and instead (...) to found his critical philosophy, according to which the epistemological starting points of natural science and philosophy are different in principle. In other words, there is no examination of whether the reasons given by Kant are of a principle nature so that they are still valid today, but rather, ignoring Kant's arguments, it is taken for granted that a different physical theory than classical mechanics could achieve this.Because nonlinear thermodynamics in particular is often presented as a candidate that justifies hopes of an evolutionary physics, the position of this branch within the structure of physics will be investigated here. It will be seen that a historical component is introduced into physics via initial, boundary, and other supplementary conditions, but that this does not mean that historicity has been grasped in laws, which is of course the point of a scientific theory of development.It is demonstrated that the conclusion drawn for physics by some authors from nonlinear thermodynamics, according to which physics today becomes an evolutionary physics incorporating the cognitive subject, is wrong. The progress made by modern thermodynamics is, without doubt, significant. The widespread philosophical interpretation of thermodynamics rests, however, on an antiquated ontologization of physical concepts and thus on the usual procedure of mechanicism.If one tries to introduce the conception of evolution into natural science by leveling the difference between philosophy and natural science in a mechanistic manner, then the dialectical evolutionary conception which represents a new epoch of human thinking degenerates to an evolutionism, where lawfulness is replaced by accidentalness. (shrink)

It is demonstrated that in quantized general relativity one is led to Jordan-Fock type uncertainty relations implying the occurrence of cut-off lengths. We argue that these lengths (i) represent limitations on the measurability of quantum effects of general relativity and (ii) provide a cut-off length of quantum divergences.

The difference between the measurement bases of classical and quantum mechanics is often interpreted as a loss of reality arising in quantum mechanics. In this paper it is shown that this apparent loss occurs only if one believes that refined everyday experience determines the Euclidean space as the real space, instead of considering this space, both in classical and quantum mechanics, as a theoretical construction needed for measurement and representing one part of a dualistic space conception. From this point of (...) view, Einstein's program of a unified field theory can be interpreted as the attempt to find a physical theory that is less dualistic. However, if one rgards this dualism as resulting from the requirements of measurements, one can hope for a weakening of the dualism but not expect to remove it completely. (shrink)

Rediscussing early arguments have led to the founding of quantum electrodynamics, but it is shown that one cannot employ them for the founding of quantum GRT. These arguments rather demonstrate that Einstein's GRT is essentially classical.

Was ist wirklich? Was ist die Wirklichkeit? Anhand einer epistemologischen Analyse der Physik werden Fragen diskutiert, die der Uberzeugung entspringen, dass das Wissen der exakten Naturwissenschaften -formal-, dass es sogenanntes Verstandeswissen ist, das als solches die Wirklichkeit nicht direkt, nicht adaquat zu reflektieren vermag, dennoch aber die exakten Naturwissenschaften zu allgemeingultigen Gesetzesaussagen uber die Wirklichkeit gelangen. Die Antwort auf die Frage, wie dies moglich ist, wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit gesucht, indem Probleme der Physik sowohl in ihrer modernen Auspragung als (...) auch in ihren antiken Urformen und ihrer klassischen Newtonschen Gestaltung untersucht werden. Dabei ergibt sich, dass die physikalischen Begriffsbildungen massgeblich durch das Prinzip der experimentellen Methode bestimmt sind, das die Begrundung physikalischer Gesetze erst ermoglicht, zugleich aber eine Begrenztheit des physikalischen Wirklichkeitsbegriffs impliziert.". (shrink)

Reminiscing on the fact that E. Schrödinger was rooted in the same physical tradition as M. Planck and A. Einstein, some aspects of his attitude to quantum mechanics are discussed. In particular, it is demonstrated that the quantum-mechanical paradoxes assumed by Einstein and Schrödinger should not exist, but that otherwise the epistemological problem of physical reality raised in this context by Einstein and Schrödinger is fundamental for our understanding of quantum theory. The nonexistence of such paradoxes just shows that quantum-mechanical (...) effects are due to interference and not to interaction. This line of argument leads consequently to quantum field theories with second quantization, and accordingly quantum theory based both on Planck's constant h and on Democritus's atomism. (shrink)

Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen zu Aristoteles' Naturphilosophie interpretieren Haupttexte aus seinen Schriften Physik, Über Entstehen und Vergehen, Über die Entstehung der Lebewesen, Über die Seele. Sie führen zu einigen wichtigen Einsichten über die Natur, die Materie, die Zeit, die Bewegungs- und Zweckursache u.a. und erheben ihre aktuelle Bedeutung für die gegenwärtigen interdisziplinären Diskussionen zwischen Naturphilosophie, Physik, Biologie, Psychologie und Anthropologie.

Fifty years ago Hartman studied the barrier transmission time of wave packets (J Appl Phys 33:3427–3433, 1962). He was inspired by the tunneling experiments across thin insulating layers at that time. For opaque barriers he calculated faster than light propagation and a transmission time independent of barrier length, which is called the Hartman effect. A faster than light (FTL or superluminal) wave packet velocity was deduced in analog tunneling experiments with microwaves and with infrared light thirty years later. Recently, the (...) conjectured zero time of electron tunneling was claimed to have been observed in ionizing helium inside the barrier. The calculated and measured short tunneling time arises at the barrier front. This tunneling time was found to be universal for elastic fields as well as for electromagnetic fields. Remarkable is that the delay time is the same for the reflected and the transmitted waves in the case of symmetric barriers. Several theoretical physicists predicted this strange nature of the tunneling process. However, even with this background many members of the physics community do not accept a FTL signal velocity interpretation of the experimental tunneling results. Instead a luminal front velocity was calculated to explain the FTL experimental results frequently. However, Brillouin stated in his book on wave propagation and group velocity that the front velocity is given by the group velocity of wave packets in the case of physical signals, which have only finite frequency bandwidths. Some studies assumed barriers to be cavities and the observed tunneling time does represent the cavity lifetime. We are going to discus these continuing misleading interpretations, which are found in journals and in textbooks till today. (shrink)

Wilhelm Windelband (1848-1915) war Ordinarius der Philosophie im Deutschen Kaiserreich, Haupt der südwestdeutschen Schule des Neukantianismus und einflussreicher Kathederfürst. Dem Neukantianismus wird Gegnerschaft zur Psychologie nachgesagt, und Windelband gilt in der Wissenschaftsgeschichte als jemand, der eine ausgeprägte Abneigung gegen die Psychologie hegte und diese polemisch von sich gab. Die hier erstmalig untersuchte Wirklichkeit sah anders aus. Er setzte sich frühzeitig für die Selbständigkeit der Psychologie ein, arbeitete an einem Buch zur Psychologie und hielt mehr als zwanzig Hauptvorlesungen zur Psychologie. Institutionelle (...) Hintergründe des problematischen Verhältnisses zwischen Philosophie und Psychologie werden untersucht und gezeigt, weshalb Windelband kein Einzelfall in der Geschichte des Faches Philosophie war. (shrink)

This article examines the problematic phenomenon of political naming through conceptual history. It is evident that illiberal is an ambiguous term and determining what it means is challenging, not to mention the political aspects of the name itself. We claim that naming is a political act par excellence and test our hypothesis by examining Viktor Orbán’s Băile Tuşnad speeches between 2014 and 2019 and the annual State of the Nation speeches between 2015 and 2020. We claim that even Orbán has (...) difficulties in naming his political system. Moreover, we link naming to discussions concerning democracy. In Hungary, this “illiberal” position enables a ruling party to act in accordance with a purely majoritarian form of democracy, that is, to implement legislation with very little regard to the opposition, and by concentrating power to the party and especially to its leader. (shrink)

Sein und Bewußtsein, zwei Kernbegriffe der modernen Bewußtseinsphilosophien, vor allem seit Kant, werden von diesen immer im Gegensatz zur traditionellen Metaphysik bestimmt, obwohl sie ihr der Sache nach entstammen. Die vorliegende Untersuchung beabsichtigt, in einer Gegenüberstellung von Aristoteles und Kant neben dem Verschiedenen auch das Gemeinsame zwischen den traditionellen und den modernen Auffassungen der beiden Begriffe herauszustellen und zu erörtern. Im Ergebnis finden sich Gesichtspunkte, wonach sich die beiden Auffassungen gwissermaßen ergänzen könnten: Die modernen gehen mit dem Bewußtsein auf eine (...) subjektive Erkenntnisbedingung, die traditionellen mit dem Sein der Dinge auf eine objektive reale Erkenntnisvoraussetzung. Die Untersuchung berücksichtigt auch nachkantianische Bewußtseinstheorien (Reinhold, Brentano, Husserl) sowie gegenwärtige Spezialliteratur, in der Absicht, etwas zur Klärung der beiden Begriffe Sein und Bewußtsein beizutragen: Sie erweisen sich als unlösbar aufeinander bezogen. (shrink)

The collagen family of extracellular matrix proteins has played a fundamental role in the evolution of multicellular animals. At the present, 28 triple helical proteins have been named as collagens and they can be divided into several subgroups based on their structural and functional properties. In tissues, the cells are anchored to collagenous structures. Often the interaction is indirect and mediated by matrix glycoproteins, but cells also express receptors, which have the ability to directly bind to the triple helical domains (...) in collagens. Some receptors bind to sites that are abundant in all collagens. However, increasing evidence indicates that the coevolution of collagens and cell adhesion mechanisms has given rise to receptors that bind to specific motifs in collagens. These receptors may also recognize the different members of the large collagen family in a selective manner. This review summarizes the present knowledge about the properties of collagen subtypes as cell adhesion proteins. BioEssays 29:1001–1010, 2007. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

BackgroundDuring adolescence, bullying often has a sexual content. Involvement in bullying as a bully, victim or both has been associated with a range of negative health outcomes. Transgender youth appear to face elevated rates of bullying in comparison to their mainstream peers. However, the involvement of transgender youth as perpetrators of bullying remains unclear in the recent literature.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to compare involvement in bullying between transgender and mainstream youth and among middle and late adolescents in a (...) general population sample.MethodsOur study included 139,829 students in total, divided between a comprehensive school and an upper secondary education sample. Associations between gender identity and involvement in bullying were first studied using cross-tabulations with chi-square statistics. Logistic regression was used to study multivariate associations. Gender identity was used as the independent variable, with cisgender as the reference category. Subjection to and perpetration of bullying were entered each in turn as the dependent variable. Demographic factors, family characteristics, internalizing symptoms, externalizing behaviors, and involvement in bullying in the other role were added as confounding factors. Odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals are given. The limit for statistical significance was set at p < 0.001.ResultsBoth experiences of being bullied and perpetrating bullying were more commonly reported by transgender youth than by cisgender youth. Among transgender youth, all involvement in bullying was more commonly reported by non-binary youth than those identifying with the opposite sex. Logistic regression revealed that non-binary identity was most strongly associated with involvement in bullying, followed by opposite sex identity and cisgender identity. Transgender identities were also more strongly associated with perpetration of bullying than subjection to bullying.ConclusionTransgender identity, especially non-binary identity, is associated with both being bullied and perpetrating bullying even when a range of variables including internal stress and involvement in bullying in the opposite role are taken into account. This suggests that bullying during adolescence may serve as a mechanism of maintaining heteronormativity. (shrink)

Aufgrund sorgfältiger Untersuchung in phänomenologischer Erkenntnishaltung können die Struktur des Lysis, die künstlerisch-ideelle Gedankenbewegung und damit die Einheit von philosophisch-künstlerischer Gestalt und philosophischem Gehalt des Dialoges in einer strengeren Weise erfasst werden als bisher. Dadurch werden ganz neue Beziehungen zu Gestalt und Gehalt der Politeia sichtbar. Sie erlauben im Verein mit grundsätzlichen Überlegungen zur Methode der datierenden Sprachstatistik und weiteren Beobachtungen, den Lysis chronologisch nach der Politeia anzusetzen - in der Trilogie Phaidros - Lysis - Euthydemos. So können die interpretatorischen (...) Einschränkungen durch das Vorurteil, der Lysis sei ein Frühdialog, überwunden werden. Die positive Interpretation des Dialoges und ihre Vertiefung durch die platonische Prinzipienlehre werden damit auf ungewohnte Weise stärker begründet. (shrink)

This accessible and highly readable book is the first full-length biography of Hegel to be published since the largely outdated treatments of the nineteenth century. Althaus draws on new historical material and scholarly sources about the life and times of this most enigmatic and influential of modern philosophers. He paints a living portrait of a thinker whose personality was more complex than is often imagined, and shows that Hegel's relation to his revolutionary times was also more ambiguous than is usually (...) accepted. Althaus presents a broad chronological narrative of Hegel's development from his early theological studies in Tubingen and the associated unpublished writings, profoundly critical of the established religious orthodoxies. He traces Hegel's years of philosophical apprenticeship with Schelling in Jena as he struggled for an independent intellectual position, up to the crowning period of influence and success in Berlin where Hegel appeared as the advocate of the modern Prussian state. Althaus tells a vivid story of Hegel's life and his intellectual and personal crises, drawing generously on the philosopher's own words from his extensive correspondence. His central role in the cultural and political life of the time is illuminated by the impressions and responses of his contemporaries, such as Schelling, Schleiermacher and Goethe. This panoramic introduction to Hegel's life, work and times will be a valuable resource for scholars, students and anyone interested in this towering figure of philosophy. (shrink)

Someone acts in a morally worthy way when they deserve credit for doing the morally right thing. But when and why do agents deserve credit for the success involved in doing the right thing? It is tempting to seek an answer to that question by drawing an analogy with creditworthy success in other domains of human agency, especially in sports, arts, and crafts. Accordingly, some authors have recently argued that, just like creditworthy success in, say, chess, playing the piano, or (...) archery, creditworthy moral success is a matter of getting things right by way of manifesting a relevant skill. My main aim in this paper is to bring out an important structural difference between moral creditworthiness and creditworthiness in sports, arts, and craft, undermining attempts to use examples of the latter as a model for understanding the former. As an alternative, I propose an account of morally creditworthy action, according to which such action is a matter of manifesting virtue, not skill—a claim that’s based on an important, but underappreciated, difference between the sorts of excellences constituting virtues and skills. The paper thus contributes to a more nuanced picture of normative achievements across different domains of human agency, highlighting largely overlooked structural dissimilarities among them. (shrink)

Das Buch ist als Festschrift dem estnischen Erziehungswissenschaftler Professor Dr. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. Heino Liimets (1928-1989) gewidmet. Der Sammelband besteht aus vier Teilen, von denen drei die wichtigsten Schwerpunkte des wissenschaftlichen Werks von Heino Liimets widerspiegeln. Im ersten Teil (An Heino Liimets denkend) schreiben seine Kollegen und ehemaligen Studenten ihre Erinnerungen uber ihn. Der zweite Teil (Uber die Denkkulturen) beinhaltet die Beitrage uber Erziehungs- und Bildungsphilosophie, Geschichte der Padagogik und uber die methodologischen Probleme der Erziehungswissenschaft. Im (...) dritten Teil (Ich - Selbst - Identitat) fragt man philosophisch und padagogisch denkend nach der Selbstwerdung des Menschen. In den Beitragen des vierten Teils (Uber die Erziehungskulturen) werden die Ergebnisse der empirischen Untersuchungen zu den Erziehungskulturen zu Hause und in der Schule dargestellt.". (shrink)

Today, monitoring of patient complaints in healthcare services is being used as a tool for quality assurance systems and in the future development of services. This nationwide register study describes the number of all complaints processed, number of complaints between different state provinces, healthcare services and healthcare professionals, and outcomes of complaints in Finland during the period 2000–2004. All complaints processed at the State Provincial Offices and the National Authority for Medicolegal Affairs were analysed by statistical methods. Complaints about mental (...) healthcare were explored in greater detail. The analysis showed that the number of patient complaints increased considerably during the study period. There were changes in the number of complaints between study years in different provinces. Out of different healthcare services, an especially marked increase was seen in private healthcare. Nearly all complaints were lodged against physicians, and over half of the complaints were made because of medical error. In mental health care, patients more often complained about unsatisfactory certificates and statements and the use of compulsory hospital care. An analysis of the outcomes revealed that in mental health care complaints more seldom led to consequences. The results need to be utilised when planning interventions for advanced supervision, prevention of adverse events and patient safety in healthcare, and especially in mental health care. From the patients’ perspective, it is important to create a culture where most problem situations are handled where the treatment was provided, thus avoiding a complex complaints process. (shrink)

Seit dem byzantinischen Bilderstreit und dem Bildersturm der Reformation ist nicht mehr in solcher Intensität über Bilder nachgedacht worden wie in den letzten Jahrzehnten. Neben der Archäologie und der Kunstgeschichte haben sich zahlreiche weitere Fächer an Fragestellungen rund um das Bild geradezu festgebissen. Angesichts dessen geht einer der bedeutendsten Kunsthistoriker der Gegenwart der Frage nach, warum Begriff und Geltung sowie Macht und Ohnmacht von Bildern so hartnäckig verfolgte Themen unserer Tage geworden sind.

“Analytical construct. The Culture as construct and the constitution of the social – fallowing Max Weber”. The key of this paper is the chalange to determinate theplace of the cultural sociology in the context of the general sociology and of the other cultural sciences, like cultural anthropology and ethnology. For doing that it is necessary to analize Max Weber’s concept: Gedankenbild.