The purpose of this paper is the clarification of some methodological problems concerning Rawls’ theory of justice. The first part seeks to make more precise Tugendhat’s distinction between 1st-person-theory and 3rd-person-theory. Rawls’ theory fulfills all criteria for 1st-person-theories. In the second part Rawl’s coherence model for the justification of norms („reflective equilibrium“) is critically analyzed and opposed to the hypothetical decision which individuals are to make in the original position (contract model). It is shown that the conception of reflective equilibrium (...) is in various aspects mistaken. In conclusion a problem is indicated which Rawls has not satisfactorily resolved: The veil of ignorance is supposed to guarantee that the decision for the basic principles of social justice is unanimous. Nevertheless it would appear that the individuals in the original position either have too little empirical knowledge in order to make a rational decision, or they have too much knowledge in order to come to an unanimous decision. The veil of ignorance is either too fine or not fine enough. (shrink)

We report to which extent elementary particles and the nucleons can be described by an Ansatz that is alternative to the established standard model, and can still yield predicted results that reproduce the observed ones, without using the formalism of quantum mechanics. The different Ansatz is motivated by the attempt to explain known properties of elementary particles as a consequence of an inner structure, in contrast to the approach of the standard model, where the properties are ascribed to point-like particles. (...) Based on the assumption of the existence of photons, the possibility of the creation of fermion and anti-fermion in an interaction of two photons of equal energy is shown. The properties of these created elementary material particles are found to agree with the ones observed. Also the possibility of the creation of a neutron by interaction of two photons of equal energy is shown. In this case, the newly formed neutron rests in the center of the collision system as a combined system of the localized two photons. The created neutron is shown to have the known properties of the neutron, and in addition, to have a definite shape of definite size. The proton is described as the particle formed by decay of the neutron, also owning the observed properties, and in addition a definite shape. For all particles described by the Ansatz, their properties are consequences of an inner structure. The merits of the alternative description as compared to the standard model and the application of quantum mechanics are discussed. (shrink)

Hume ist ein Vertreter der Moral-Sense-Schule der Ethik. Unter Tugend versteht er die Disposition zu tugendhaftem, d. h. selbstlosem Handeln. Der positive Wert tugendhaften Handelns besteht in seinem Nutzen, sei es für das Wohlergehen der betroffenen Individuen, sei es für die Gesellschaft als ganze durch die Stabilisierung ihrer institutionellen Ordnung. Dieser Doppelfunktion entsprechend, unterscheidet Hume zwischen den natürlichen Tugenden des Wohlwollens und den künstlichen Tugenden der Gerechtigkeit. Hume glaubte, den Hobbes zugeschriebenen Egoismus widerlegen zu müssen: Aus der überwältigenden empirischen Evidenz, (...) dass es tugendhafte Handlungen gibt, folgerte er, dass eine Art fundamentaler Sympathie für unsere Mitmenschen Teil der menschlichen Natur ist und dass der Egoismus daher falsch ist. Tatsächlich aber wird der von Hobbes vertretene Egoismus durch Humes Nützlichkeitserklärung der sozialen Tugenden nicht widerlegt, sondern bestätigt. (shrink)

This is the Spanish translation, by María Gabriela Fulugonio, of Arend Heyting’s classical text “Die logizistische Grundlegung der Mathematik”, which was originally presented at the Königsberg’s Symposium on Philosophy of Mathematics in 1930, and finally published in Erkenntnis in 1931.

Several theoretical publications on the Dirac equation published during the last decades have shown that, an interpretation is possible, which ascribes the origin of electron spin and magnetic moment to an autonomous circular motion of the point-like charged particle around a fixed centre. In more recent publications an extension of the original so called “Zitterbewegung Interpretation” of quantum mechanics was suggested, in which the spin results from an average of instantaneous spin vectors over a Zitterbewegung period. We argue that, the (...) corresponding autonomous motion of the electron should, if it is real, determine non-relativistic spin measurements. Such a direct connection with the established formal quantum mechanical description of spin measurements, into which spin is introduced as a “non-classical” quantity has, to our knowledge, not been reported. In the present work we show that, under certain “model assumptions” concerning the proposed autonomous motion, results of spin measurements, including measurements of angular correlations in singlet systems, can indeed be correctly described using classical probabilities. The success of the model is evidence for the “reality” of the assumed autonomous motion. The resulting model violates the Bell—inequalities to the same extent as quantum mechanics. (shrink)

This book provides an interdisciplinary examination of international law by addressing four critical questions: How are international legal rules distinctive? How does an investigator determine the existence of a rule of international law? Does international law really matter in international politics? and What effect could the changing nature of international relations have on international law? Using Constructivist theory, Arend argues that international law can alter the identity of states, and, consequently, have a profound impact on state behavior.

As public research organisations are increasingly driven by their national and regional governments to engage in knowledge transfer, they have started to support the creation of companies. These research based spin-off companies (RBSOs) often keep contacts with the research institutes they originate from. In this paper we present the results of a study of four research institutes within two universities and two non-university public research organisations (PROs) in the Netherlands. We show that research organisations have distinct motivations to support the (...) creation of spin-off companies. In terms of resources RBSOs contribute, mostly in a modest way, to research activities by providing information, equipment and monetary resources. In particular, RBSOs are helpful for researchers competing for research grants that demand participation of industry. Furthermore, RBSOs may be seen as a proactive response by Dutch public research organisations to demands of economic relevance from their institutional environment. RBSOs enhance the prestige of their parent organisations and create legitimacy for public funds invested in PROs. At the same time, most RBSOs do not have a significant impact on the direction of the research conducted at the PROs. (shrink)

L’ouvrage d’A. Wenger est la version remaniée de sa thèse de doctorat complétée par certains développements parus dans des revues spécialisées, Clio. Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés, Dix-huitième Siècle… La reprise de travaux antérieurs a entraîné parfois quelques redondances – sur l’onanisme ou la lectrice, par exemple – qu’une lecture plus attentive aurait pu éviter. Cette restriction est mineure au regard de l’intérêt de cette étude dont « l’objectif est de faire bouger les objets d’analyse t...

L’auteur a pris le risque de traiter d’une question qui, aujourd’hui encore, fait polémique : celle du rapport qu’entretient le philosophe et romancier Jean-Jacques Rousseau avec la différence sexuelle. L’un des mérites de l’étude de Laure Challandes est d’argumenter, avec une grande précision, sur la nécessaire frontière qui existe entre les textes théoriques, Lettre à d’Alembert sur les spectacles, Du contrat social, Émile ou de l’éducation, entre autres, et les textes fictifs, parmi lesque...

While Kant in his pre-critical work expressed appreciative, albeit reserved, sympathy toward the British moral sense school, in his main works on moral philosophy he harshly rejects the idea that we have a specific moral sense. This change in attitude is, of course, connected to Kant's discovery and formulation of a purely rational moral principle. Still one might ask whether Kant's critique of moral sense theory was really justified. To answer this question, I shall first examine what Kant understands the, (...) or a, moral sense to be. Second, I shall consider which arguments Kant employs to reject any moral sense. Third, I shall explain what Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, and Hume meant when discussing moral sense. Finally, I shall show that Kant's moral legalism cannot come to grips with the aspect of moral consciousness, for which the British moral philosophers coined the concept of moral sense, and that therefore Kant's criticism of moral sense theory is unjustified. Während der Kant der vorkritischen Schriften der moral-sense- Schule der Briten zwar nicht ohne Vorbehalte, aber doch mit anerkennender Sympathie gegenübergestanden hat, verwirft er in seinen moralphilosophischen Hauptschriften die Annahme eines spezifischen moralischen Sinnes mit äußerst harschen Worten. Dieser Wandel der Einstellung hängt natürlich mit Kants Entdeckung und Formulierung eines rein rationalen Moralprinzips zusammen. Dennoch stellt sich die Frage, ob Kants Kritik der moral-sense- Theorie wirklich berechtigt ist. Zur Beantwortung dieser Frage wird erstens untersucht, was Kant unter dem oder einem moralischen Gefühl versteht, zweitens wird geprüft, mit welchen Argumenten Kant die Annahme eines moral sense verwirft, und drittens wird mit Bezug auf Shaftesbury, Hutcheson und Hume dargelegt, was diese Theoretiker eigentlich unter einem moral sense verstanden haben. Abschließend wird dargetan, daß Kant mit seinem moralischen Legalismus eben den Aspekt des moralischen Bewußtseins nicht erfassen kann, für den die Briten den Begriff des moral sense geprägt haben, und daß seine Kritik der moral-sense- Theorie insofern unberechtigt ist. (shrink)

This article is a comment on Carel Smith’s paper. Smith rightly argues that the study of law has a hermeneutic character. But his interpretation of legal hermeneutics includes the thesis that in hard cases there is no right or true legal decision. This seems to have negative implications for the scholarly character of the study of law: in hard cases any solution goes. This paper argues, against Smith, that the study of law defends right answers for hard cases. It is (...) also normative in another sense: legal answers, in easy cases as well as in hard cases, always presuppose a normative interpretation of the legal sources. This contributes to the differences of opinion under lawyers. But it is no obstacle to the scholarly character of the study of law, as long as a rational debate about these legal answers and the underlying values and principles is possible. Smith’s rejection of the right answer thesis, however, prevents the possibility of such a rational debate. (shrink)

David Humes "Untersuchung über den menschlichen Verstand" (zuerst 1748) gehört zu den großen Texten der Philosophie der Aufklärung. Nichts außer Erfahrung ist die Grundlage alles Wissens. Alle nicht durch Erfahrung gestützten Behauptungen und Prinzipien sind als dogmatisch abzuweisen. Wir vertrauen auf kausale Zusammenhänge, obwohl wir sie streng genommen nicht beweisen können. Mit dieser Problemlage muss sich seit Hume jede Erkenntnistheorie auseinandersetzen - von Kant bis in die Moderne. Der Band gibt in Humes Werk wie in die gegenwärtige Diskussion umfassenden Einblick (...) und ist damit für Forscher, Dozenten und Studierende unverzichtbare Lektüre. Mit Beiträgen von: Michael Hampe, Heidrun Hesse, Bertram Kienzle, Heiner F. Klemme, Lothar Kreimendahl, Jens Kulenkampff, Astrid von der Lühe, Richard Popkin, Bernhard Rang, Gilbert Ryle, Hans-Peter Schütt und Jean-Claude Wolf. (shrink)

Professional codes of ethics are regarded as elements of nurses' ethical knowledge base and consequently part of their ethics education. However, research focusing on these codes from an educational viewpoint is scarce. This study explored the need and applicability of nursing codes of ethics in modern health care, their importance in the nursing ethics curriculum, and the need for development of their teaching. A total of 183 Finnish nurse educators and 212 nursing students answered three structured questions, with an opportunity (...) to justify their responses, and one open-ended question. Descriptive statistics and content analysis were used to analyse the data. The results suggest that the existence of the codes was seen as important and their applicability mainly as appropriate, despite new challenges posed by modern health care. The codes were regarded as an important part of nurses' ethics education, but current integrated teaching methods require development. (shrink)

A ética do discurso justifica o conteúdo de uma moralidade que salienta a simetria entre os sujeitos e a solidariedade entre todos. Para Habermas “a solidariedade é a outra face da justiça” (1999, p. 42), ou seja, são duas faces da mesma moeda. Esta é uma afirmação chave em relação ao conteúdo cognitivo do âmbito moral. A validade das normas pressupõe uma fundamentação normativa estruturada linguisticamente, de forma a vincular a justiça com a solidariedade. A ênfase está em uma razão (...) prática capaz de fundamentar princípios igualitários e universalistas da moral e do direito (2009, p. 63). A legitimação do estado de direito deve preservar sua neutralidade ideológica, alicerçada em uma moral racional, isto é, laica (ou secular). Com isso, as exigências normativas devem ser aceitas por todos em uma sociedade pluralista, formada por cidadãos de diferentes credos e, inclusive, por não crentes (HABERMAS, 2009, p. 69). (shrink)

Im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung steht die Analytik des Schonen in Kants Kritik der Urteilskraft. Es wird gezeigt, was Kant zu einer Geschmackskritik in transzendentaler Absicht motiviert und wie er in Form einer entdeckenden Analyse die Erklarung dafur zu finden sucht, warum reine asthetische Urteile mit einem Allgemeingultigkeitsanspruch auftreten konnen, auch wenn sie ihn nicht einlosen konnen. Kritische Betrachtungen der Einleitungen zur Kritik der Urteilskraft und Analysen von Kants Theorie der schonen Form und seiner Theorie der anhangenden Schonheit runden die Untersuchung (...) ab. Der zweiten Auflage der Abhandlung sind ein Register und ein langeres Nachwort beigegeben, das auf einige Titel der neueren Forschungsliteratur eingeht (Ginsborg, Fricke, Henrich, Otto). (shrink)

Spinozas und Humes Staatstheorien werden zuerst unter dem Aspekt der Staatsvertragstheorie verglichen, die von Hume kritisiert worden ist, während Spinoza sie zunächst vertreten hat. Es wird gezeigt, daß Spinoza, indem er diese Theorie später fallen ließ, ein Selbstkorrektur vorgenommen hat, weil die Staatsvertragstheorie unter Spinozas metaphysischen Prämissen haltlos ist. Spinoza und Hume werden dann unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Legitimität staatlicher Machtausübung verglichen. Hier liegen beide insofern nahe beieinander, als sie die Legitimität von Herrschaft auf die Erfüllung gewisser allgemeiner Staatszwecke gründen; (...) andererseits besteht die Differenz, daß Spinoza den bürgerlichen Gehorsam allein durch die überlegene Macht des Staates gewährleistet sieht, während Hume die These vertreten hat, daß die Autorität der Regierung niemals allein auf Macht, sondern vor allem auf der Überzeugung der Bürger von ihrem generellen Nutzen beruht. (shrink)

In this paper the thesis is argued that there is no need for a special legal logic to deal with the defeasibility of legal arguments. An important argument for this thesis is that legal judgements ask for a complete justification and that such a complete justification requires a deductively valid argument.

David Humes 'Untersuchungen über den menschlichen Verstand' gehört zu den großen Texten der Philosophie der Aufklärung: Alle nicht durch Erfahrung gestützten Grundsätze sind als dogmatisch abzuweisen. Nur Erfahrung garantiert Sinn. Wir vertrauen auf kausale Zusammenhänge, obwohl wir streng genommen nicht erkennen können. Mit dieser Problemlage muss sich seit Hume jede Erkenntnistheorie auseinandersetzen – von Kant bis in die Moderne. Der Band gibt in Humes Werk wie in die gegenwärtige Diskussion umfassenden Einblick und ist damit für jedes Seminar unverzichtbare Lektüre.