The book provides the first critical edition of the Dialogus written in Latin by William of Ockham in the 14th century. The dialogue is Ockham's chief work on political philosophy which engages with questions of property rights, natural law, and the theory of nation-states.

Understanding and interpreting religious texts correctly is an important problem in every period and culture. Taking advantage of the ezperience of our ancient culture in solving this problem will greatly alleviate our burden. Because, despite the historical distance between us, it is possible to come across traces in the works of the predecessor ulama which will enlighten modern methods of today. In addition, the scientific and cultural heritage of the sects other than Ahl-Sunnah has rich content in this sense. To (...) benefit from this accumulation will give us different perspectives. In this article the principles that Zaydī mohaddith who lived in Hijri 6th centuryin Yemen, used in understanding and interpreting the hadiths of judgment are discussed around two main titles as internal and external factors and nineteen sub-titles under these titles. These principles were evaluated within the scope of his work called Uṣūl al-aḥkām al-jāmi' li-adillat al-ḥalāl wa-al-ḥarām. The principles that followed by an important figure of Zaydī thought, Ahmad b. Suleiman (d. 566/1171), in understanding and interpreting the hadiths of judgment include notable examples in this sense. Because he is more interested in the text and notion of hadiths rather than criticism of the sanad within framework of Zaydiyya of which he is a member. He also makes his comments from this perspective. In this aspect, this article will make a small contribution to the interpretation of the hadiths of ahkām. (shrink)

The narratives that are perceived to be in dispute are considered as problematic both within the Sunnī tradition and among scholars outside of this perspective, such as Ibāḍī and Shī’ī scholars and this problem continues to exist today. This situation may cause confusion in the followers of the two thought systems and may lead their interlocutors to have negative opinions about sunna and may bring to mind the idea that the hadiths are not reliable. Eliminating this negative situation about the (...) sunna of the Prophet is a step that will help minimizing the disputes that occur within the Islamic community and the groupings that occur as a result. For this reason, the steps to be determined and implemented to eliminate the contradictions between the hadiths are of great importance. A remarkable literature has emerged on resolving the conflict between hadiths as a result of the studies of Ahl al- sunna and Shī’ī scholars. Benefiting from this knowledge is the most fundamental step that will strengthen our hand and simplify our job in solving the problem. Even though there is a historical distance between us, the works of the predecessor scholars may have hints that can produce solutions to today's problems. In addition, handling such studies not only from the perspective of Ahl al-sunna but also from the perspective of different thoughts will add positive depth to the studies in this context. Zaydiyya, who exhibits a moderate approach to Ahl al- Sunna thought within the Shī’ī has a heritage that should be taken into account in this sense. With this article, it is aimed to benefit from the studies of the Zaydī tradition within Shī’ī in this field. Ahmed b. Suleiman (d. 566/1171) is an important representative of this sect. In his work called Usūl’al-Ahkâm he presents examples that will shed light on the issue of resolving the conflict between hadiths by using the combination and compilation method. In this article, we have tried to deal with the examples of his use of the combination and compilation methods within the framework of his work called Usūl’al-Ahkâm under the headings of "allocation, denial and paraphrasing. (shrink)

We study implications of Leibnizian ideas such as the identity of indiscernibles, and variety (due to Barbour and Smolin) in the context of Wolfram Model, which has been put forward in 2020. We have provided (at the moment) speculative interpretations for Leibnizian and non-Leibnizian hypergraphs. We introduced an action based on variety, to select paths where it is maximized. The specific universe which is of concern here is the one with name ‘wm1268’ from the Registry of Notable Universe Models, which (...) is used as a test case in the present study. (shrink)

The Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic is affecting many areas of life and has led to major changes in undergraduate medical education. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, high mental burden of medical students has frequently been reported in the literature. Additional pandemic-specific stressors could exacerbate this situation. This study aimed to assess mental health outcomes among medical students during the first semester after the COVID-19 outbreak and perception of the students on how the learning environment has changed. In May 2020, we (...) conducted a cross-sectional survey among undergraduate medical students at a large medical school in Germany. The survey included validated mental health instruments and self-developed items to examine the perception of the study situation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Open-ended questions were analyzed by conventional content analyses. The response rate was 59.2%. Overall, 61.9% of the students reported distress levels above the cutoff. Year 1 students reported significantly higher levels of distress, anxiety and depression than students during their second to fourth year of studies. 48.3% of the students indicated a decrease in their study motivation since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic with significant differences between study years. The binary logistic regression model showed that male gender, being in study year 2, higher distress scores and higher symptoms of depression were significantly associated with a higher likelihood for experiencing serious worries. In the open-ended questions on current concerns related to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their studies, students most frequently reported concerns about missing relevant practical learning experience, difficulties with self-regulated learning and self motivation as well as study-related worries. Year 4 students reported significantly more worries about the lack of practical training than students from study years 1 to 3. Analysis of gender differences showed that female students reported more frequently diverse worries. In contrast, female students shared more frequently helpful strategies in all the categories compared to male students. Our findings suggest that medical students experience significant levels of distress and mental burden during the COVID-19 pandemic and highlight the need for ongoing psychological and educational support for medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic and after. (shrink)

RESUMO: No presente artigo, o tema da política será pensado a partir das críticas às constituições morais valorativas delineadas por Nietzsche. Nesse sentido, pretende-se elucidar que o posicionamento deste autor, por um lado, indica uma leitura crítica da política a partir da sua formação democrática, por esta considerar o homem de maneira universal e rebaixar seus valores ligado a sua singularidade. E, por outro lado, possibilitar uma distinta percepção da organização política. Isto devido ao fato de se observar uma nova (...) perspectiva para a questão política, cujo interesse seja de afirmar a vida, estimular novos valores, vontades e desejos que levem o homem a outras formulações de existência. Palavras-chave: Nietzsche, política, valores, afirmação da vida. (shrink)

Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitrag - zur inhaltlichen Frage nach heute begründbaren pädagogischen Zielsetzungen - zur methodologischen Frage danach, ob und wie Pädagogik als Wissenschaft zur inhaltlichen Zielfrage, zur Begründung von Zielen zur Entscheidung über Erziehungsspiele beitragen kann - zur Problemgeschichte der Zieldiskussion in der neueren Erziehungswissenschaft - zur Gesamtinterpre- tation der Pädagogik W. Flitners und - zur kritischen Interpretation der konservativen Ausprägung der geisteswissenschaftlichen Pädagogik.

Danièle Kergoat est une figure de la sociologie du travail, connue pour avoir tôt sexué – « genré », dirait-on aujourd’hui et en particulier en histoire sociale – ses résultats de recherche. Et une trentaine de textes de collègues, d’ancien-ne-s doctorant-e-s et d’ami-e-s sont rassemblés pour rendre hommage à ses méthodes de recherche et ses travaux, à ses responsabilités académiques et militantes, ainsi qu’aux appareils d’analyse qu’elle a popularisés ces dernières décennies : « rapports soc...

Excerpt from Phänomenologie und Religion: Ein Beitrag zu den Prinzipienfragen der Religionsphilosophie doch woran mir abgefehen von hem vor allem tag, war hnrch hie aflgemeinphilofophiiche %efinnung über hie tran fgenhentabphänornenotogii chen %ragen religionéphilof ophii che n n h hamit auch theologifche slärobteme 5u flären. Ebenn nach meiner Ueber5engung erhebt {ich hie $heotogie in her (R)iiäiplin her Softematifchen £heotogie in ha (R)ebiet her 8tetigionß= phitoiophie. die $heotogie mirh hier gut Steligionäphitofophie' für hie her retigiöfe glbert he @hriftentnmé hen höchften retigiöfen28ert überhaupt (...) bebentet. 60 ergibt fich hie 5dioglichleit, her Methohenlofigt'eit unb hem 9)iethobenwirrwar, wie fie auf hem ($ebiet her frfitematifchen $heologie fein @nbe nehmen wollen, von ber ?religionäphilofophie an? 511 ftenern. @ine von ihr empfohlene, möglichft umfafienhe &)jiethobe, hie hem phanomeno logifchen unb hem tranfgenhentalen 9)ioment gleichmäßig gerecht wirh, fann hier helfen. 8nwiefern hie r e li gio näpfgchologiiche 9jiethobe flßobbermin? in bieler %e5iehung einen wertvollen a iahpunft für alle weitere %orichung in bieler beheutet, ioll au hiefer Heinen 2lbhanblung beutlich werben. (R)af3 fie trot5 ber llngunft ber Seiten unter hie sbrefie gelangte, bafür meinem %erleger, (c)errn Dr. 6iebecf, her3lichft z, u haufen, liegt mir am (R)chlnfi noch hie angenehme S13flicht ob. About the Publisher Forgotten Books publishes hundreds of thousands of rare and classic books. Find more at www.forgottenbooks.com This book is a reproduction of an important historical work. Forgotten Books uses state-of-the-art technology to digitally reconstruct the work, preserving the original format whilst repairing imperfections present in the aged copy. In rare cases, an imperfection in the original, such as a blemish or missing page, may be replicated in our edition. We do, however, repair the vast majority of imperfections successfully; any imperfections that remain are intentionally left to preserve the state of such historical works. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:BOOK REVIEWS 489 right; and it will be of interest to students of modern aesthetics. But compared with Rudolf Makkreel's ground-breaking study, Dilthey, Philosopher of the Human Studies (Princeton, 1975), it is handicapped by an exasperating vagueness. This is mainly because Heinen does not go more deeply into Dilthey's profuse aesthetic writings from a historical perspective and on the basis of a commitment to an appropriate methodology. What (...) we get, instead, is a rather one-sided reflection on several important aspects of Dilthey's aesthetic writings. ROLF-DIETERHERRMANN University of Tennessee Young John Dewey: An Essay in American Intellectual History. By Nell Coughlan. (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1975. Pp. xii + 187) The author's aim in this carefully researched volume is to examine the early development of Dewey's character, primarily as it is expressed in the changes in his philosophical development from the time he was a student at the University of Vermont until he left the University of Michigan to go to Chicago in 1894. The account is at its best in relating the common problems shared by Dewey, his teachers George Sylvester Morris and G. Stanley Hall and his younger colleague George Herbert Mead. All were conscientious men, concerned to develop an account of the world and of society that does not fall back on religion as a crutch, that could give some accounting of or even take advantage of new developments in empirical psychology yet still provide a role for the philosopher as a moral leader. Where in the America of the 1870s and 1880s could such a person turn? Aside from Harvard and Johns Hopkins, there was no place for the independent, secular philosopher in American colleges and universities. The safe clergyman was typically given employment; the free thinking agnostic was considered dangerous. Further, there was the problem of intellectual isolation. Coughlan brilliantly contrasts the tight knit intellectual community of Victorian England with the struggles of individual American thinkers, scattered around the United States, to find like-minded intellectual companionship. Morris tried to resolve these problems by embracing the idealism of T. H. Green and hoping for a full-time chair at Hopkins. Hall, who eventually got the chair, went into empirical psychology. His choice was safe and intellectually respectable but ignored moral matters. Mead and a young friend named Henry Castle went through a long struggle to develop a satisfactory world view. Castle never achieved success and died in a shipwreck at age 32. Mead's correspondence with Castle reveals that he endured a number of acute personal crises before becoming Dewey's colleague at Michigan and discovering the latter's newly developing "organic circuit" theory with all its implications for the development of social psychology. Dewey was the most successful of the lot. It would be easy to construe a scenario wherein the young Dewey became skeptical about Green's idealism and underwent an acute personal crisis at the prospect of a world no longer glued together by the universal mind. This apparently never happened. By his own account, Dewey's "drift" from idealism took fifteen years, 1and I suspect that this gradual disengagement served as an effective buffer against the shock of having to develop an experimental naturalism all of a sudden. At any rate, Coughlan gives the most thorough account available of the evolution of Dewey's thought during the Michigan years. Coughlan is on solid ground so long as he treats Dewey as a person who shared common intellectual problems with like-minded colleagues and teachers. But how can one reconstruct his personal life? The difficulties are real. Dewey's published writings of the period reveal little John Dewey, "From Absolutism to Experimentalism," in John Dewey on Experience, Nature, and Freedom, ed. Richard J. Bernstein (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960), p. 12. 490 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY of his personality. Indeed, one is moved to ask whether his personality was almost entirely submerged in his work. Colleagues, friends and students are no longer available to tell their story. There is little in the way of revealing personal correspondence that is available. Dewey was not inclined to reminisce.2 About all we have from him... (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:BOOK REVIEWS 487 Although this reviewer would have appreciated a fuller expression of the dialectical interdependency and synthetic elements holding between Fichte and Schelling than Schurr actually developed, his study is nevertheless an orderly and well-documented presentation of their fundamental views. The study can serve as a solid and professional introduction to the postKantian phase of German Idealism, and it most certainly deserves translation into English. LAWRENCES. STEPELEVICH Villanova (...) University Die Konstitution der Jl'sthetik in Wilhelm Diltheys Philosophie. By Michael Heinen. Abhandlungen zur Philosophie, Psychologie und P~dagogik, no. 100. (Bonn: Bouvier, 1974. Pp. 220) Michael Heinen's book draws attention to Dilthey's interest in the original dimension of art experience. That interest has been the traditional stock in the trade of philosophers since the ancient Greeks, and most crucially since the subjectivization of the aesthetic sphere in the speculative thought of Kant and German idealism. But the point is that there is a gap between those philosophers who speculated about perception, aesthetic pleasure, and the enjoyment of the senses, and who tried to justify those speculations through wide-ranging inquiries into the order of the world and its understanding through our ego and its potentialities--betweenthem and Dilthey, who knows that this age-old enthusiasm for metaphysical and epistemological inquiries has become obsolete. The earlier display of erudition may be vast and awe inspiring. But in Dilthey's mind an interest in those inquiries is no longer foremost. Commendable as all of them may be, they approach the world of the work of art and its experience from the outside, in an independent, self-sufficient, and almost autonomous manner, without facing up to the horizon of the world in which an artistic work is rooted. This horizon of the world emerges as the leitmotif of Heinen's book. Heinen reminds the reader that those who create are immersed in this horizon. The conditions under which they work, the tools they have, the methods they use, the materials that are available to them, the ideas they have in mind--all this can be traced back to the world which surrounds them. Moreover, they belong to an historical world. They are oriented toward a past they remember, a future they anticipate; and all they think, or feel, or will, stands in an historical context, long before they are conscious of themselves in this respect. Heinen rightly points out that this creates a problem not only for the analysis of the artistic expression but for the field of hermeneutics, for the method of understanding this expression. It is not so much something that is understood in its meaning by referring to an ego, or a system of cognitive faculties. It emerges from the socio-historical world; and we must place it back in the same horizon from which it emerges. Heinen agrees with Dilthey that we always find ourselves within the whole of life; and when understanding something--a work of art or any other historical object--we have to do it within the full context of life to which we belong. It is an objectification of life that we have to understand from life itself. This may help to explain why a work of art is more than an object created by an artist through his inspiration and the unconscious production of his genius. From his Hegelian perspective Heinen tells us that whenever an artist is involved in the creation of something he is dependent upon the world in which he lives and upon a dialectic between himself and the horizon of life. Heinen expressly defends the probability of this dialectic in a chapter on the presuppositions of Dilthey's aesthetics (pp. 134-162). He studies Dilthey's attempt to discover a methodological basis for the human sciences. He calls attention to the remarkable sequence of sketches in which Dilthey distinguishes between Geisteswissenschaften and Naturwissenschaften, between human sciences that, in one way or another, deal with historical and other manifestations of 488 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY life and inner experience, and natural sciences that deal with phenomena, with objects of nature. Dilthey is profoundly conscious and frank in announcing that the human sciences also treat phenomena or objects. But... (shrink)