Ibadi Theology: Rereading Sources and Scholarly Works. Edited by Ersilia Francesca. Studies on Ibadism and Oman, vol. 4. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2015. Pp. 331. €68.

1980 sonrası dönemde evrimci iktisat yükselişe geçmiş ve ana akım iktisadı tek başına değiştirme gücü vurgulanmıştır. Fakat evrimci iktisadın ne olduğuna yönelik disiplin içinde bir anlaşmazlık ve karışıklık mevcuttur. Bu karışıklığa bağlı olarak evrimci iktisat disiplinde altı farklı yaklaşımla ifade edilmektedir. Bu çalışma ise Veblen’e atıfla gelişen ve 1980’lerden günümüze Hodgson tarafından güçlü bir şekilde sürdürülen evrimci-kurumsal iktisatla ilgilidir. Hodgson, iktisadın etkin bir sosyal bilim olabilmesi için Veblen’in düşüncelerini ve Veblen’le bağlantılı Darwinizmi benimsemesi gerektiğini vurgulamaktadır. Bu öneri Veblen’in post-Darwinist iktisat (...) önerisini genelleştirilmiş Darwinizm olarak sunmaktadır. Hodgson’ın Veblen’e yaslanarak geliştirdiği genelleştirişmiş Darwinizm önerisi, fizik özelinde başlayan iktisattaki bitmeyen doğa bilimi arayışının heterodoks iktisatta da güçlü bir şekilde karşılık bulduğunu göstermektedir. Burada yapılan veya yapılmak istenen doğacılık temelinde bir sosyal teori inşasıdır. 19. yüzyıl düşünsel kodlarına bir dönüş çağrısıdır. Özelde evrimci düşünce ve genelde de doğacılık düşüncesi 19. yüzyıl düşünsel koşullarına gömülüdür. Dolayısıyla günümüzde evrimci iktisadın yükselişi, bir taraftan 19. yüzyıldakine benzer şekilde hem doğa biliminde hem de sosyal bilim de tek geçerli bilim metodolojisi ve hatta metodoloji olmanın ötesinde ontoloji teklifini içerirken diğer taraftan Batı düşüncesinin doğalcılık ve bilimcilik şeklinde tekrar örgütlendiğini göstermektedir. (shrink)

In this article, the solution proposed by Osman Afīf Efendi, a late Ottoman scholar, to the problem of the creation of human actions in his Risālat al-irādat al-juzʾiyya will be discussed. Although the problem of the role of human beings in their actions, which has been debated since the early period of theology, has been the subject of works with different titles such as ḳaẓā wa ḳadar, ḫalḳu'l-aʿmāl, and efʿāl al-ʿibād, in the Ottoman scholarly tradition it was mostly dealt with (...) in the treatises on the particular will (al-irādah al-juz’iyyah). Osman Afīf Efendi's treatise is one of the last examples of this genre. In addition to al-Jabriyya, the majority of the Muʿtazilites, the famous view of the philosophers, Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (d. 324/935-36), Abū Isḥāq al-Isfarāyīnī (d. 418/1027), Abū Bakr al-Bāqillānī (d. 403/1013), and the Māturīdī school, the author mentions an eighth view. Osman Afīf Efendi touches only the main ideas of the well-known views of the Jabriyya, the majority of the Muʿtazilites, and the Philosophers. On the other hand, he gives relatively more space to the views of al-Ashʿarī, al-Isfarāyīnī, al-Bāqillānī, and the Māturīdī school. Osman Afīf Efendi states that the solutions proposed by Sunnī scholars are united in the common denominator of being the middle way in the faith and emphasizes the similarities rather than the differences between these solutions. There are some indications in the treatise that the author endeavored to bring a different perspective to Ashʿarī's idea of Kasb. His explanations in the context of al-Bāqillānī and al-Isferāyīnī's views are in the form of a response to the criticisms levelled against the approaches of these scholars. One of the most striking points in the treatise is the statement that the view of the Māturīdī school is the same as that of al-Bāqillānī. Osman Afīf Efendi also touches upon the issue of human will, that is, the universal and particular will. In this context, he states that the particular will is not created. However, he does not provide a clear explanation of the ontic structure of the particular will, and he mentions the different opinions expressed by later Māturīdī scholars, such as the juzī will being a dispositional or intizāʿī state. (shrink)

Human actions have been one of the most discussed topics in the science of kalām since the first centuries of Hijra. Many scholars from different schools of kalām have tried to solve this problem. Efforts to solve the problem have brought different views. In this framework, three main views emerged Jabrī, Qadarī/Muʿtazilī and Salafī/Sunnī. The views of Islamic philosophers were added to these and this number was increased to four. Nevertheless, Sunnī scholars, who agree on the basic propositions, disagreed on (...) the nature of kasb. While there are differences of opinion between Ashʿarī and Māturīdī schools, there are also those who put forward different views among scholars belonging to the same school. Abū Bakr al-Bāqillānī (d. 403/1013), Abū Isḥāq al-Isfarāyīnī (d. 418/1027) and Juwaynī (d. 478/1085), Sadr al- Shrīʿa (d. 747/1346) and Ibn al-Humām (d. 861/1457) are the most obvious examples of this. These views on human actions have been mentioned in their works by scholars of kalām. One of these scholars is Gelenbevî Ismāʿil (d. 1205/1791). In this article, the views on human actions will be examined in the context of Gelenbevî’s work named Ḥāshiya ʿalā Sharḥ al ʿAqāʾid al ʿAḍudiyya. Gelenbevî makes concise or detailed explanations about the views mentioned in his work with the exception of Ibn al-Humām. In addition, he also mentions the views of al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111). While Gelenbevî mentions these views and the discussions that took place around them, He makes use of his works Ījī’s (d. 756/1355) named Mawāqif, Taftāzānī’s (d. 792/1390) Sharḥ al Maqāṣ̣ıd and Jurjānī’s (d. 816/1413) Sharḥ al - Mawāqif. Gelenbevî states that Ashʿari’s view is middle jabr (jabr al muṭavaṣṣıṭ) and even he is accused of being pure jabr (jabr al- maḫẓ). Based on the concept of partial will (al-irādah al-juzʾiyyah), he says that the views of Bāqillānī and Māturīdī school are the same and states that this view is more successful than Ashʿari’s in explaining human responsibility. This thought indicates that he is closer to the Māturīdī view of human actions than to Ashʿarī. He points out that Isfarāyīnī’s views are open to criticism in some respects. He implicitly states that he does not agree with the idea that Juwayni agrees with the Islamic philosophers. Rather than Muʿtazila’s views, it focuses on whether their views and the views of Islamic philosophers are the same. (shrink)

Are feelings an essential part or aspect of emotion? Cases of unconscious emotion suggest that this is not the case. However, it has been claimed that unconscious emotions are better understood as either (a) emotions that are phenomenally conscious but not reflectively conscious, or (b) dispositions to have emotions rather than emotions proper. Here, I argue that these ways of accounting for unconscious emotions are inadequate, and propose a view of emotions as non-phenomenal attitudes that regard their contents as relevant (...) to one's motivations. (shrink)

Os textos reunidos neste livro foram originalmente apresentados no Colóquio Internacional Kátharsis, realizado pelo programa de pós-graduação em Filosofia da FAFICH/UFMG. Os textos têm como tema compartilhado o conceito de catarse e apresentam perspectivas bem distintas - vão desde a origem do conceito na Grécia antiga até sua atualidade no mundo contemporâneo, levando em consideração seus diferentes momentos e apresentando grande diversidade nos enfoques adotados pelos colaboradores.

It is generally assumed that emotion concepts are purely descriptive. However, recent investigations suggest that the concept of happiness includes information about the morality of the agent's life. In this study, we argue that normative influences on emotion concepts are not restricted to happiness and are not about moral norms. In a series of studies, we show that emotion attribution is influenced by whether the agent's psychological and bodily states fit the situation in which they are experienced. People consider that (...) emotions are not just about feeling in certain ways, but also about feeling the right way. (shrink)

Can we experience emotion without the feeling of accelerated heartbeats, perspiration, or other changes in the body? In his paper “What is an emotion”, William James famously claimed that “if we fancy some strong emotion and then try to abstract from our consciousness of it all the feelings of its bodily symptoms, we find we have nothing left behind” (1884, p. 193). Thus, bodily changes are essential to emotion. This is known as the Subtraction Argument. The Subtraction Argument is still (...) used to support Embodied theories of emotion. Proponents of Disembodied theories, however, have different intuitions regarding the role of bodily changes in the experience of emotion. In order to advance this debate, I conducted a series of studies testing people’s intuitions regarding the Subtraction Argument. Results show that, against James’ claims, most people consider that their hypothetical (Study 1) and actual (Study 2) emotions persist in the absence of bodily feelings. Furthermore, Study 1 found that participants’ responses were not related to individual differences in reflection or interoceptive awareness. These results pose a problem for Embodied theories of emotion and challenge extant explanations for the persistence of emotional experience in cases of impaired interoception. (shrink)

Emergency situations require individuals to make important changes in their behavior. In the case of the COVID-19 pandemic, official recommendations to avoid the spread of the virus include costly behaviors such as self-quarantining or drastically diminishing social contacts. Compliance (or lack thereof) with these recommendations is a controversial and divisive topic, and lay hypotheses abound regarding what underlies this divide. This paper investigates which cognitive, moral, and emotional traits separate people who comply with official recommendations from those who don't. In (...) four studies (three pre-registered) on both U.S. and French samples, we found that individuals' self-reported compliance with official recommendations during the COVID-19 pandemic was partly driven by individual differences in moral values, disgust sensitivity, and psychological reactance. We discuss the limitations of our studies and suggest possible applications in the context of health communication. (shrink)

The first examples of the novel genre in modern Arabic literature emer-ged with the innovation movements initiated in this country after Napoleon's invasion of Egypt. In terms of technique and fiction, the Arab novel's reaching the desired standards and the first novel examples in the literary sense were made possible by the contributions of many writers who came to the fore with their different identities from writing novels. One of these writers, better known as a critic, is Ibrāhīm ʽAbd al-Qādir (...) al-Māzinī. Māzinī, who has written works in many fields of literature, is a master writer who has mostly written psychological novels. The aim of this study is to examine the themes that Māzinī, one of the important names of Arabic literature, included in his novels. In our study, Māzinī's novels Ibrāhīm al-Kātib, Ibrāhīm al-Thānī and Thalāthat Rigâl wa’mra’ah were examined and in these novels, mainly love, affection, pressure of tradition, despair, pessimism, disappointment, sadness, fear, delusion, jealousy and stinginess were examined. It has been determined that themes such as While many different themes were seen in the novels of many writers of his time, it is seen that the themes in Māzinī's novels are mostly psychological themes that reflect the inner world of man. In this respect, Māzinī differs from many other Arab novelists. (shrink)

Sahra Altı Afrika’da yabancı yatırımların ekonomik büyümeyi etkilemesini inceleyen literatürde birbiriyle çelişen görüşler mevcuttur. Bazı araştırmacılar Sahra Altı Afrika’da yer alan gelişmekte olan ülkelerin sermaye akışlarını liberalleştirdikleri zaman, yüksek seviyedeki volatilite, artan cari hesap açıkları, gelişmiş finansal piyasaların yokluğu ve düzenleyici çerçevenin düşük kalitesinden dolayı ekonomik kayıplara uğrayacaklarını öne sürmektedirler. Oysa, bazı çalışmalar Sahra Altı Afrika’daki düşük seviye birikmiş tasarruflarına çare olmak için yabancı yatırımın ekonomik büyümeyi arttırıcı etkisine odaklanmıştır. Çalışma, Sahra Altı Afrika’daki ülkeler için yabancı portföy yatırımlarının ve doğrudan (...) yabancı sermaye yatırımlarının ekonomik büyümeye etkisi konusunda yeni bulgular getirmektedir. Endojenlik sorunu nedeniyle, üç eşzamanlı denklem sistemini tahmin etmek için panel VAR metodolojisini kullanılmıştır. 1990-2016 arasında Sahra Altı Afrika’daki 25 ülkeyi analiz ederek, Sahra Altı Afrika’da doğrudan yabancı sermaye yatırımları ve yabancı portföy yatırımlarının tamamlayıcı olduğunu ve her ikisinin büyümeyi pozitif anlamlı etkilediğini bulunmuştur. (shrink)

Dini çoğulculuk, dini dışlayıcılık ve kapsayıcılıktan farklı olarak, her dinsel inanış taraftarlarının kendi dinleri içinde kalarak ilahi selamete erişeceğini söyler. Temelde, teolojik ve felsefi boyutları olan dini çoğulculuk tartışmasının siyasete bakan bir yönü de vardır. İslam tarihinde Meşşâî felsefenin kurucusu ve mutluluk filozofu olarak bilinen Farabi, bir taraftan hakikate nasıl ulaşılacağı diğer taraftan ise “âlem” adını verdiği kozmopolitanizm nasıl inşa edileceği ile ilgilenmektedir. Siyasal toplumun amacının, insanların uygun ölçekte, en yüce iyi için yardımlaşmalarını sağlamak olduğunu savunan Farabi’ye göre, erdemli bir (...) yaşam kurulmasına imkan sağlayan üç örgütlenme biçimi vardır: Şehir, millet ve âlem. Platon ve Aristoteles gibi Antik düşünürlerden farklı olarak erdemli bir yaşamın sadece sitede kurulacağı düşüncesine karşı çıkan Farabi, sitenin yetkin bir yaşamın ilk basamağı olduğunu savunur. Ancak, erdemli yaşamı site ile sınırlamaz. Farabi’nin teorisinde, Antik düşünceyi aşan bir kozmopolitanizm söz konusudur. Bundan dolayı Farabi, farklı dinlerin varlığını, kendi siyasal düşüncesine uygun olarak meşru kabul eder. Eğer mutluluk için yardımlaşacaklarsa, insanların dinlerinin farklı olmasında bir beis görmez. Bu dini çoğulculuğun siyasal temelidir. Diğer taraftan Farabi, dinleri hakikatle eşitleyen anlayışa karşı çıkarak, farklı dinlerin hakikatin çeşitli imajlar, örnekler ve taklitler yolu ile halka benimsetilmesi olarak görülmesi gerektiğini savunur. Diğer bir ifade ile dinler, hakikatin kendisi değil, farklı tarihsel ve kültürel bağlamlarda oluşmuş sembolik ifadesidir. Bu bakımdan bütün dinler ile hakikat arasında bir mesafe bulunmaktadır ve hiçbir din hakikatin kendisi değildir. Buradan Farabi’nin düşüncesinde dinsel çoğulculuğunun sınırı olmadığı çıkmamalıdır. Farabi’ye göre din, felsefe yolu ile bulunan hakikatin ikna etme veya hayal ettirme yoluyla ya da her ikisiyle birden halka kabul ettirilmesidir. Ancak Farabi, hakiki felsefe ile sahte felsefe arasında bir ayrım yapar ve ancak hakiki felsefeyi takip eden dinlerin bir hakikat değeri olduğunu savunur. Hakiki felsefe ise evrenin bir ilk nedeni olduğunu ve ilk nedenin de nedensiz olduğunu söyler. Bu, evrenin tek bir yaratıcısı olduğu anlamına gelir ve çok tanrıcılığı dışlar. Bu bakımdan Farabi, sadece tek tanrılı dinleri çoğulculuk kapsamına alır. Bunun nedeni, tek tanrılı dinlerin hakikatle özdeş olmaları değil, hakiki felsefeyi takip etmeleridir. Çünkü felsefe dinden öncedir. Bu, Farabi’nin düşüncesinde çoğulculuğun sınırlarına işaret etmektedir. Farabi, dinleri hakikatle özdeş görmeyerek ve aynı hakikatin sembolik ifadeleri olduğunu söyleyerek çoğulculuğun yolunu açar. Buna karşın sahte felsefeyi takip eden dinler olduğu gerekçesiyle çok tanrılı dinleri dışarıda bırakarak sınırlarını çizer. Bu çalışma, Farabi’nin düşüncesinde dini çoğulculuğun siyasal ve epistemolojik temellerini ve çoğulculuğun sınırlarını konu almaktadır. (shrink)

College students have become more representative as blood donors, mainly to help other people. This study ascertained the association between spirituality and adherence or intention to donate blood in post-graduate students. In this quantitative and cross-sectional study, participants were 281 students from a post-graduate programme at a Brazilian public university. After complying with ethical requirements, data were collected through a questionnaire for sociodemographic characterization and identification of blood donation practices, followed by the Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Descriptive statistics and parametric tests (...) were used for data analysis. A total of 74% of the participants were female and 26% were male. Previous experience and/or intention to donate blood were found in 75.3%; 14.3% donated blood periodically. In addition, 12.2% were not adept to donation and 12.5% were inapt. Spiritual Well-Being scores were similar between individuals who are not adept and those who donate periodically. In conclusion, in the sample, spirituality and blood donation are not associated, but spiritual well-being and gender are. To enhance blood donation, further research is needed. (shrink)

Faculty journals are one of the necessary platforms for qualified academic production. Since 2018, the number of the published journals of theology faculty has reached 56. The purpose of this study is to analyze the articles on religious education published at journals of theology faculty between 1925 and 2017 by virtue of the used research methods such as qualitative and quantitative, and numerical distribution according to the journals, subject area diversity, scientific research methods used, contributions of different science branches, number (...) of author and foreign language writing. Research is a type of descriptive and cross-sectional screening based on document analysis and content analysis. There are 604 articles on religious education published in journal of theology faculty. According to the results of the research, the religious education articles have a very wide subject network and the majority of the articles are the theoretical studies. Research is important in terms of revealing the current state of published works on religious education.SummaryReligious education is quite old as the practice, but as a scientific discipline is an area that can be considered new in Turkey. However, it should be noted that religious education has left behind a process that lasts nearly 40 years and has been making a rapid progress towards becoming a scientific discipline. In Turkey, the first journal of the Republican period in theology is The Journal of Dârü'l-Fünûn Faculty of Theology. it published 25 issues until 1933 in which the Dârü’l-fünûn Faculty of Theology ended its education. In this research, covering the 92-year period between 1925-2017, articles on religious education published in the journals of the faculty of theology have been evaluated by document analysis and content analysis. During the research, databases of all theology journals were examined through their web pages. There are 604 articles on religious education published in journals of theology faculty. There are only a limited number of studies in the literature that subject the articles in the field of religious education to assessment. The most relevant one to this research is the article by Kaymakcan and Ünsal about the religious education published in the journals of the theology faculty in 1952-2003. A total of 213 articles published in 18 journals of faculties were listed in alphabetical order.The purpose of this study is to analyze the religious education articles published at journals of theology faculty between 1925 and 2017 by virtue of the used research method such as qualitative and quantitative, and numerical distribution according to the journals, subject area diversity, scientific research methods used, contributions of different science branches, number of author and foreign language writing. Research is a type of descriptive and cross-sectional screening based on document analysis and content analysis. The scope of the research is limited to 57 faculties. All articles of all academicians working / had worked in main science branch of religious education were included in the research. In addition, articles of title of religious education / religious teaching which were written by academicians from other fields were also included in the study.The evaluation process of the published articles on religious education in the journals of theology faculty from 1925 to 2017 is divided into three parts. The first is the period from 1925 to 1980. In this period, a total of 17 articles have been published and each year an average of 0.3 percent of articles. The second part is between the years 1995 and 1995 when the new divinity magazines began to be published. In this process, 55 religious education articles were published in the journals of the faculty of theology. In this period, the average number of articles per year is 3,4. The third part is from 1996 to the present. In this period, a total of 532 articles were published and the average of articles per year was 24. One of the results of the study is that the articles on religious education published in the journals of the Faculty of Theology have a wide range of topics. When the subject classification of the articles is examined, it can be seen that the articles are divided into 10 main subject / problem areas. Foundations of religious Education history of religious education, formal religious education, common religious education, informal religious education, ethics and values education, education based on religion, development and religious education, religious education in the countries, person surveys are from these main subject areas. Formal religious education is the area where the most articles are produced (189 article). When we look into the faculty journals the most studies were published in the Journal of Faculty of Theology of Ankara University with 86 articles. With 59 articles Uludag, with 52 articles 19 May, with 51 articles The Republican Journal of Theology follow Ankara University Faculty of Theology Journal. 65% of the articles (368) were written based on the literature review method. 23% of the articles were quantitative, 10% were qualitative and 2% had mixed methods. The number of articles using the qualitative method is 54 and the number of articles using the hash method is 14. According to the academic studies of the authors, the distribution of articles related to religious education is given. According to this, religious education branch constitutes 85% of all articles with 510 articles. 15% of them are composed of 89 articles which are contributed by 23 branches such as theology, philosophy, sociology, literature, educational sciences, and social services. When we look at the distribution of the articles according to the academic study areas of their authors, it is revealed that the science of religious education has an interdisciplinary aspect. It seems that there is an article level contribution to the field of religious education from almost every discipline in theology. When we analyze the articles about religious education published in the faculty of theology journals in terms of the number of authors, it is seen that only 43 of the 604 articles were carried out by more than one researcher. Of the 43 articles with more than one author, 8 were theoretical and the other 35 used empirical methods. When we look at the publication of the articles published in the journals of Theology Faculty in foreign languages, only 12 articles were published in foreign languages. This ratio corresponds to 2%. 7 of the 12 articles were published in German, 4 in English and one in Arabic. According to the results of the study, the rate of writing in a foreign language on the religious education is clearly insufficient. These two problems not only belong to the field of religious education, but also to all the disciplines of theology. In particular, production of articles in foreign languages is obvious that pose a problem for all academic fields in Turkey. In this issue, individual and institutional developments are highly needed. (shrink)

v. 1. Introducción a la filosofía del derecho -- v. 2. Introducción a la ciencia del derecho.

The purpose of this study is to present how ancient and modern thinkers describe politics and to discuss reasons for differences seen in these definitions. In the ancient period, the identification of human being as a political entity by nature caused politics to be seen as the most supreme of all human activities. For the ancient thinkers, politics is conceptualized as a pluralist area in which the common issues are discussed by equals and also which excludes inequality. Ancient thinker Aristotle (...) says that the purpose of politics is “good life”. However, modern political thought which began with Machiavelli identified politics with the concepts of force, power and violence. Politics is defined by Machiavelli and his successors as the legitimate organization of physical violence, the distribution of power, value and resources by authority. While in the Ancient Greece violence is excluded from the public-political sphere, It has become one of the central concepts defining the political society in the modern world. While the human being was defined as a political entity (zoon politikon) in the ancient period, it is usually seen as an economic entity (homo economicus) in the modern period. For the ancients good life means a life that is dedicated to politics; nevertheless, it has been often associated with econo- mic activity by the moderns. This study argues that the main difference between the political definitions of ancients and moderns stem from differences between their perspectives about the aim of human and human life. (shrink)

En Ciencia de la lógica, Hegel finaliza la lógica objetiva con un largo estudio de las categorías modales (realidad, necesidad y posibilidad). Nuestra propuesta es que tal estudio hay que entenderlo en confrontación directa con la situación dejada por Kant en los principios del entendimiento puro de KrV. Para defender tal tesis expondremos, en primer lugar, la exposición kantiana del problema; en segundo lugar, el desarrollo de la lógica de la esencia dentro de la obra; y, por último, la nueva (...) interpretación que propone Hegel de las categorías modales. (shrink)

I propose and defend the conjecture that what explains why Gettiered subjects fail to know is the fact that their justified true belief depends essentially on unknown propositions. The conjecture follows from the plausible principle about inference in general according to which one knows the conclusion of one’s inference only if one knows all the premises it involves essentially.

A widespread conception of anger both within and outside academia proposes to interpret it (along with other emotions) as an adaptive response to certain recurrent problems in our evolutionary past, which implies interpreting anger as a discrete, basic, innate and adaptive emotion. In view of the crisis that the Basic Emotions thesis is going through, and taking into account a number of important objections that have been raised to the idea that anger represents a discrete emotion, I will suggest that (...) the definitive abandonment of the concept of anger (and its close relatives, rage and indignation) has important hermeneutical advantages, including the possibility of approaching the problem of the phylogenesis of our sense of justice from a perspective that avoids the rupturist and continuist extremes that rely on a discrete conception of the emotions. (shrink)

The validity of the prayer which is accepted as the most basic worship of Islam has been tied to a set of rules. These rules which must be followed before and during the prayer are called conditions and pillars in the fiqh language. The recitation performed while standing during the prayer is one of the most significant of these rules and is accepted one of the pillars of the prayer. Therefore, in order for the prayer to be valid, it is (...) required to make enough recitations. If it is not done, the prayer is considered invalid. For this reason, the topic of recitation in prayer has been discussed in detail by the jurists, and different opinions have been submitted what, when and how much to recite. The jurists have suggested three basic views on this issue. Ḥanafīs have stated that a person who follows the imām in prayer should not recite, and they have accepted the recitation of ma’mūm as makruh regardless of whether the recitation is loud or silent. The Shāfiʿīs who uphold the opposite view of the Ḥanafīs have said that the ma’mūm have to recite in all the prayers in which the qirā'āt is loud and silent, and that it is obligatory for the ma’mūm to recite. According to Shāfiʿīs the prayer of a ma’mūm without recitation is not valid. Malikīs and Ḥanbalīs who have explained their opinions by taking into account that the recitation is loud and silent have stated that the ma’mūm should recite during prayers in which the recitation is silent. In the prayers where the recitation is loud the Ḥanbalīs have said that the ma’mūm should recite when the imām takes a break from recitation, while the Malikīs have said that the recitation is not required for the ma’mūm. However the jurists of both sects have not considered that the recitation is obligatory to ma’mūm. And they have acknowledged that the prayer of the ma’mūm was valid even if he has not recite. There is intra-sectarian disagreement in all of these three basic views which are presented as the general opinion of the sects. Although we are talking about the intra-sectarian disagreement, it is understood that the jurists except the Ḥanafīs have determined their views on the recitation of the ma’mūm within the context of whether the ma’mūm hear or do not hear the recitation of the imām. It can be said that this understanding is at the basis of the views put forward by the Shāfiʿīs who take into account that the recitation is loud and silent about the ma’mūm’s recitation of the sūrat after the Fātiḥa. Likewise it is possible to say that this understanding is at the basis of the perceptives brought forward by the Malikī and Ḥanbalī jurists about the prayers in which the recitation is sound. The jurists who expressed different opinions about the recitation of the ma’mūm similarly brought evidence from the Qurʾān, the Sunnah, opinions of the Companions and qiyās to justify their views. Although the jurists have grounded their views on similar evidence, they have reached different conclusions. The reason for this difference it can be shown that the direction of the verse (āyat) to be taken as evidence, their different approaches when evaluating the narrations transmitted from the Prophet (pbuh) and the fact that the arguments of qiyās are different. (shrink)

En este trabajo examinamos el tópico de la responsabilidad en el derecho penal internacional a la luz de la filosofía de John Searle, y del fallo dictado por la Corte Penal Internacional en el caso de Thomas Lubanga. En el primer acápite analizamos la declaración de responsabilidad penal en función de la teoría de actos de habla de Austin y de Searle, tratándola como un acto ilocucionario cuyo significado es dependiente de un marco institucional específico. Luego, en el segundo acápite, (...) mostramos de qué forma tal marco puede reconstruirse como un ejemplo paradigmático de la realidad social construida descrita por Searle, especialmente en virtud del nexo entre mente, lenguaje y sociedad. A nuestro juicio, los conceptos de intencionalidad colectiva, atribución de funciones de estatus y poderes deónticos son fundamentales para entender tal nexo. En efecto, tal como argumentamos en la tercera sección, los sistemas de poderes deónticos asociados al derecho internacional no solo explican la aparición de Tribunales penales internacionales, como la Corte Penal Internacional, sino además el carácter imprescriptible de los crímenes de lesa humanidad. Los acuerdos internacionales que promueven y protegen los derechos humanos, y que tratan la imprescriptibilidad de aquellos crímenes, son objeto de análisis en la sección final, en donde exponemos algunas reflexiones finales a partir del caso Lubanga. (shrink)

The 'Gettier Problem' has been central to epistemology since 1963, when Edmund Gettier presented a powerful challenge to the standard analysis of knowledge. Now twenty-six leading philosophers examine the issues that arise from Gettier's challenge, setting the agenda for future work on the central problem of epistemology.