Letter-position tolerance varies across languages. This observation suggests that the neural code for letter strings may also be subtly different. Although language-specific models remain useful, we should endeavor to develop a universal model of reading acquisition which incorporates crucial neurobiological constraints. Such a model, through a progressive internalization of phonological and lexical regularities, could perhaps converge onto the language-specific properties outlined by Frost.

L’avocat est une figure emblématique de la société américaine, régulée par le droit, et dans laquelle les juristes occupent une position de premier plan. Cette prééminence et l’unité de la profession juridique ont contribué à son influence bien au-delà de la sphère du droit et des frontières des États-Unis.

Comment savons-nous distinguer le bien du mal, reconnaître que telle action est bonne ou telle règle injuste ? Comme l'écrit Adam Smith, « selon certains, le principe de l'approbation est fondé sur un sentiment d'une nature originale, sur une faculté de perception particulière que l'esprit exerce au spectacle de certaines actions ou dispositions... lls lui donnent un nom particulier et l'appellent sens moral ». L'histoire moderne du sens moral, anglaise et surtout écossaise, commence par un dilemme. L'obligation suppose une règle (...) extérieure à la conscience qui est obligée. Comment juger, si nous ne disposons pas d'une règle de justice ? Mais les partisans du sens moral objectent : comment reconnaître et nous assurer que cette règle est bien juste, si nous n'avons pas d'abord la capacité de discerner ce qui est juste, indépendamment de l'obéissance à cette règle ? De deux choses l'une : soit nous sommes d'emblée et comme naturellement sensibles aux qualité morales, soit la moralité se réduit à la conformité à un univers de conventions. Cette notion est-elle autre chose qu'une chimère de moralistes ? Son étude permet de reconstituer une histoire de la philosophie morale et des polémiques qui l'animent au XVIIIe siècle - depuis Cudworth et Locke, en passant par Shaftesbury, Bayle, Hutcheson, Hume et Smith, jusqu'à Kant et Bentham. Textes de Jean-Pierre Cléro, Michèle Cohen-Halimi, Laurent Jaffro, Alain Petit, Jean-Michel Vienne. (shrink)

Beginning my third year with the Kansas City Chiefs and being also a medical student at McGill University, I was at first a little reluctant to comment on Glenn Cohen et al.’s critique of the National Football League's structure involving player health and team doctors, but the opportunity to provide a perspective as both a football player and a medical student was too much to forgo. Because of my athletic and academic background, I am often asked what I think (...) about injuries in professional sports and about the role of sports medicine physicians, and Cohen et al.’s article demands a thoughtful reaction. I want to suggest that the fundamental principles concerning the medical profession and the doctor-patient relationship provide additional arguments for some of the solutions that Cohen et al. discuss. The professional self-regulation that the proposed medical committee could provide and the reliance on a doctor who was not hired by the player's employer—the club—for a second opinion are both good ways to minimize conflicts of interest. (shrink)

A vital and underappreciated dimension of social interaction is the way individuals justify their actions to others, instinctively drawing on their experience to appeal to principles they hope will command respect. Individuals, however, often misread situations, and many disagreements can be explained by people appealing, knowingly and unknowingly, to different principles. On Justification is the first English translation of Luc Boltanski and Laurent Thévenot's ambitious theoretical examination of these phenomena, a book that has already had a huge impact on (...) French sociology and is likely to have a similar influence in the English-speaking world. In this foundational work of post-Bourdieu sociology, the authors examine a wide range of situations where people justify their actions. The authors argue that justifications fall into six main logics exemplified by six authors: civic (Rousseau), market (Adam Smith), industrial (Saint-Simon), domestic (Bossuet), inspiration (Augustine), and fame (Hobbes). The authors show how these justifications conflict, as people compete to legitimize their views of a situation. On Justification is likely to spark important debates across the social sciences. (shrink)

The purpose of this paper1 is to rationalise why and how philosophy can help today’s managers in their daily practices. I will first explain why today’s managers particularly should engage themselves in profound and enduring dialogue with philosophers. To this end, I will present the close links between the major managerial activities and the major philosophical domains. In the second section, I will sketch out how such a dialogue can be facilitated. To this end, I will present some of the (...) methods and conditions used to ensure the success of the practice of philosophy in organisations. (shrink)

Individual-as-maximizing agent analogies result in a simple understanding of the functioning of the biological world. Identifying the conditions under which individuals can be regarded as fitness maximizing agents is thus of considerable interest to biologists. Here, we compare different concepts of fitness maximization, and discuss within a single framework the relationship between Hamilton’s (J Theor Biol 7:1–16, 1964) model of social interactions, Grafen’s (J Evol Biol 20:1243–1254, 2007a) formal Darwinism project, and the idea of evolutionary stable strategies. We distinguish cases (...) where phenotypic effects are additive separable or not, the latter not being covered by Grafen’s analysis. In both cases it is possible to define a maximand, in the form of an objective function ϕ(z), whose argument is the phenotype of an individual and whose derivative is proportional to Hamilton’s inclusive fitness effect. However, this maximand can be identified with the expression for fecundity or fitness only in the case of additive separable phenotypic effects, making individual-as-maximizing agent analogies unattractive (although formally correct) under general situations of social interactions. We also feel that there is an inconsistency in Grafen’s characterization of the solution of his maximization program by use of inclusive fitness arguments. His results are in conflict with those on evolutionary stable strategies obtained by applying inclusive fitness theory, and can be repaired only by changing the definition of the problem. (shrink)

_The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics_ is the most authoritative survey of the central issues in contemporary aesthetics available. The volume features eighteen newly commissioned papers on the evaluation of art, the interpretation of art, and many other forms of art such as literature, movies, and music. Provides a guide to the central traditional and cutting edge issues in aesthetics today. Written by a distinguished cast of contributors, including Peter Kivy, George Dickie, Noël Carroll, Paul Guyer, Ted Cohen, Marcia Eaton, (...) Joseph Margolis, Berys Gaut, Nicholas Wolterstrorff, Susan Feagin, Peter Lamarque, Stein Olsen, Francis Sparshott, Alan Goldman, Jenefer Robinson, Mary Mothersill, Donald Crawford, Philip Alperson, Laurent Stern and Amie Thomasson. Functions as the ideal text for undergraduate and graduate courses in aesthetics, art theory, and philosophy of art. (shrink)

The purpose of this paper1 is to rationalise why and how philosophy can help today’s managers in their daily practices. I will first explain why today’s managers particularly should engage themselves in profound and enduring dialogue with philosophers. To this end, I will present the close links between the major managerial activities and the major philosophical domains. In the second section, I will sketch out how such a dialogue can be facilitated. To this end, I will present some of the (...) methods and conditions used to ensure the success of the practice of philosophy in organisations. (shrink)

_The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics_ is the most authoritative survey of the central issues in contemporary aesthetics available. The volume features eighteen newly commissioned papers on the evaluation of art, the interpretation of art, and many other forms of art such as literature, movies, and music. Provides a guide to the central traditional and cutting edge issues in aesthetics today. Written by a distinguished cast of contributors, including Peter Kivy, George Dickie, Noël Carroll, Paul Guyer, Ted Cohen, Marcia Eaton, (...) Joseph Margolis, Berys Gaut, Nicholas Wolterstrorff, Susan Feagin, Peter Lamarque, Stein Olsen, Francis Sparshott, Alan Goldman, Jenefer Robinson, Mary Mothersill, Donald Crawford, Philip Alperson, Laurent Stern and Amie Thomasson. Functions as the ideal text for undergraduate and graduate courses in aesthetics, art theory, and philosophy of art. (shrink)

The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics is one of the most authoritative surveys of the central issues in contemporary aesthetics available. The volume features eighteen newly-commissioned essays on the evaluation of art, the interpretation of art, and forms of art such as literature, movies, dance, and music. Written in clear and accessible prose by an assembly of some of the most distinguished philosophers of art, these essays develop the themes, discuss the problems, and evaluate the arguments of the main topics in (...) the field. An excellent resource for students and scholars alike, this book provides a guide to the central, traditional questions as well as the cutting-edge issues in aesthetics today. The contributors are Peter Kivy, George Dickie, Noël Carroll, Paul Guyer, Ted Cohen, Marcia Muelder Eaton, Joseph Margolis, Berys Gaut, Nicholas Wolterstorff, Susan Feagin, Peter Lamarque, Stein Haugom Olsen, Francis Sparshott, Alan Goldman, Jenefer Robinson, Mary Mothersill, Donald W. Crawford, Philip Alperson, Laurent Stern, and Amie L. Thomasson. (shrink)

_The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics_ is the most authoritative survey of the central issues in contemporary aesthetics available. The volume features eighteen newly commissioned papers on the evaluation of art, the interpretation of art, and many other forms of art such as literature, movies, and music. Provides a guide to the central traditional and cutting edge issues in aesthetics today. Written by a distinguished cast of contributors, including Peter Kivy, George Dickie, Noël Carroll, Paul Guyer, Ted Cohen, Marcia Eaton, (...) Joseph Margolis, Berys Gaut, Nicholas Wolterstrorff, Susan Feagin, Peter Lamarque, Stein Olsen, Francis Sparshott, Alan Goldman, Jenefer Robinson, Mary Mothersill, Donald Crawford, Philip Alperson, Laurent Stern and Amie Thomasson. Functions as the ideal text for undergraduate and graduate courses in aesthetics, art theory, and philosophy of art. (shrink)

_The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics_ is the most authoritative survey of the central issues in contemporary aesthetics available. The volume features eighteen newly commissioned papers on the evaluation of art, the interpretation of art, and many other forms of art such as literature, movies, and music. Provides a guide to the central traditional and cutting edge issues in aesthetics today. Written by a distinguished cast of contributors, including Peter Kivy, George Dickie, Noël Carroll, Paul Guyer, Ted Cohen, Marcia Eaton, (...) Joseph Margolis, Berys Gaut, Nicholas Wolterstrorff, Susan Feagin, Peter Lamarque, Stein Olsen, Francis Sparshott, Alan Goldman, Jenefer Robinson, Mary Mothersill, Donald Crawford, Philip Alperson, Laurent Stern and Amie Thomasson. Functions as the ideal text for undergraduate and graduate courses in aesthetics, art theory, and philosophy of art. (shrink)

Fiduciary duty is not restricted merely to the property of shareholders but includes ethical obligations to a wider constituency stakeholders in terms of power. Several approaches to corporate social responsibility (CSR) are considered in terms of their respective orientations to the external world. Robert Greenleaf's notion of "service to others" or "servant-leadership" is considered as a case of the fifth level approach to CSR. An historical perspective offers a precedent for reclaiming corporate charter grants as a means for reinstating the (...) corporation's responsibilities to the wider community. Two propositions are offered to help us revision corporations in ways that would enable their total service obligations to all constituencies. (shrink)

_An original and insightful account of nature and our place in it from one of France's preeminent historians of philosophy._.

Comme une sorte de retour, tout anniversaire conjugue un événement du passé au présent. Cent ans après sa parution, le livre de Bergson _Durée et simultanéité_ en constitue un exemple remarquable par les oppositions contenues et qui éclatèrent lors de la rencontre avec Einstein, le 6 avril 1922. Du côté de la philosophie, Bergson développait l’étonnement éprouvé lors du congrès de Bologne onze ans plus tôt, la présentation de Langevin annonçant le fameux « paradoxe des jumeaux » ; un développement (...) qui le fit revenir à son analyse de la physique newtonienne et de la philosophie kantienne, la multiplicité du temps vrai ou durée, distinguée en 1889 de la multiplicité spatiale et de son nombre. Or, du côté des recherches menées par les physiciens au tournant du XX ème siècle, l’article d’Einstein de 1905 opérait le retour, sur les épaules de Newton, à Galilée et à son dialogue avec Aristote. La forme dialoguée ici choisie s’efforce de réactiver le paradoxe toujours vivant que constitue le retour de Bergson à son point de départ. Bien plus qu’un livre du passé, il s’agit d’un événement qui n’a cessé de conjuguer physique et philosophie, et qui nous appelle aujourd’hui à un dialogue. (shrink)

La Règle d'or Tout ce que vous voulez que les hommes fassent pour vous, faites-le vous-mêmes pour eux : voilà la Loi et les Prophètes. Jésus. " La vie éthique ou morale est une exigence d'humanité. Elle naît du désir des personnes de donner sens à leurs actes et d'agir en vue du bien. Composée de règles d'action, de normes, de valeurs, de vertus, de représentations du bien ou de ce qui est sensé, elle vise à rendre la vie plus (...) humaine, et met en oeuvre la liberté des personnes dans leur relation avec les autres, avec elles-mêmes, avec la nature et avec Dieu. On appelle généralement "éthique" la science des comportements moraux humains ". Avec quelque 200 articles rédigés par plus de 100 spécialistes venus de divers horizons, ce Dictionnaire encyclopédique d'éthique chrétienne embrasse l'ensemble des différentes notions liées à l'éthique et à la réflexion morale chrétienne. Par son approche historique, interdisciplinaire et oecuménique, il offre une meilleure compréhension des débats sociétaux actuels. Sont aussi traitées des notions fondamentales du christianisme comme la grâce, la joie, l'amour, l'espérance, la foi... Tout lecteur, initié ou non, tirera profit de la consultation de cet ouvrage d'une ampleur sans précédent. (shrink)

Ecouter est une tâche d'humanité. C'est ce que tout homme doit pouvoir offrir à l'autre en proie à une détresse dont il a envie de parler. Mais écouter peut devenir, dans certains cas, affaire de spécialistes. Les Eglises chrétiennes ont une longue, très longue expérience de ce qui s'appelait jadis la direction spirituelle et que l'on nomme plus volontiers de nos jours l'accompagnement spirituel. Les modalités et le but de ces accompagnements visent à faire grandir la relation avec Celui que (...) les Eglises confessent comme le Dieu de Jésus-Christ et, conséquemment, avec autrui. Or, depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, la psychanalyse, une toute nouvelle discipline, profane en son essence et en son déploiement concret, s'est donné comme tâche similaire d'écouter la souffrance et la détresse qui cherchent à se dire. Les modalités peuvent apparaître, dans un premier temps, assez proches de la relation pastorale ou de la cure d'âmes des prêtres ou des pasteurs chrétiens : il s'agit, dans l'un et l'autre cas, de parloirs en vue du dialogue, afin qu'une parole se fasse chair là où elle a fait défaut et là où, donc, le symptôme a surgi. Le but est, cependant, très différent : permettre au sujet souffrant de pouvoir à nouveau aimer et travailler est l'unique objectif d'une analyse qui ne saurait être confondue avec la poursuite d'une éthique, étrangère à Freud... mais peut-être un peu moins à Lacan. Cet ouvrage expose les thèses et les méthodes de la psychanalyse susceptibles de jeter des lumières nouvelles au profit de la relation pastorale. Des générations pionnières en la matière, celles de plusieurs théologiens et/ou spirituels chrétiens - comme Albert Plé, Louis Beirnaert, Marc Oraison - ont osé engager le dialogue avec la psychanalyse, aussi explosif qu'il puisse se révéler de prime abord. Il a fallu, d'abord, mettre au point une méthodologie du dialogue pour éviter, autant que possible, des jonctions injustifiées. Et puis, pour nombre de ces pionniers, c'est le vif de l'expérience psychanalytique qui est apparu comme le lieu-source d'où le matériau le plus riche sur les plans théorique et clinique peut être extrait au bénéfice d'une pratique chrétienne de l'écoute qui n'ignore pas les ruses de nos conflits intrapsychiques, ces ruses toutes passionnelles que la Tradition chrétienne avait déjà pressenties. (shrink)

Three experiments explored how hypocrisy affects attributions of criminal guilt and the desire to punish hypocritical criminals. Study 1 established that via perceived hypocrisy, a hypocritical criminal was seen as more culpable and was punished more than a non-hypocritical criminal who committed an identical crime. Study 2 expanded on this, showing that negative moral emotions (anger and disgust) mediated the relationships between perceived hypocrisy, criminal guilt, and punishment. Study 3 replicated the emotion finding from Study 2 using new scenarios where (...) group agents were clearly aware of the hypocrisy of their actions, yet acted anyway. Again, perceived hypocrisy worked through moral emotions to affect criminal guilt and punishment. The current studies provide empirical support for theories relating hypocrisy and moral transgressions to moral emotions, also informing the literature on the role of moral emotions in moral reasoning and legal decision making. (shrink)

Background: Clinical tests for detecting central and peripheral shoulder fatigue are limited. The discrimination of these two types of fatigue is necessary to better adapt recovery intervention. The Kinematic Theory of Rapid Human Movements describes the neuromotor impulse response using lognormal functions and has many applications in pathology detection. The ideal motor control is modeled and a change in the neuromuscular system is reflected in parameters extracted according to this theory. Objective: The objective of this study was to assess whether (...) a shoulder neuromuscular fatigue could be detected through parameters describing the theory, if there is the possibility to discriminate central from peripheral fatigue, and which handwriting test gives the most relevant information on fatigue. Methods: Twenty healthy participants performed two sessions of fast stroke handwriting on a tablet, before and after a shoulder fatigue. The fatigue was in internal rotation for one session and in external rotation during the other session. The drawings consisted of simple strokes, triangles, horizontal and vertical oscillations. Parameters of these strokes were extracted according to the Sigma-Lognormal model of the Kinematic Theory. The evolution of each participant was analyzed through a U-Mann-Whitney test for individual comparisons. A Hotelling’s T² test and a U-Mann-Whitney test were also performed on all participants to assess the group evolution after fatigue. Moreover, a correlation among parameters was calculated through Spearman coefficients to assess intrinsic parameters properties of each handwriting test. Results: Central and peripheral parameters were statistically different before and after fatigue with a possibility to discriminate them. Participants had various responses to fatigue. However, when considering the group, parameters related to the motor program execution showed significant increase in the handwriting tests after shoulder fatigue. The test of simple strokes permits to know more specifically where the fatigue comes from, whereas the oscillations tests were the most sensitive to fatigue. Conclusion: The results of this study suggest that the Sigma-Lognormal model of the Kinematic Theory is an innovative approach for fatigue detection with discrimination between the central and peripheral systems. Overall, there is a possibility to implement the setting for clinics and sports personalized follow-up. (shrink)

We generalize the intuitionistic Hyland–Ong games to a notion of polarized games allowing games with plays starting by proponent moves. The usual constructions on games are adjusted to fit this setting yielding game models for both Intuitionistic Linear Logic and Polarized Linear Logic. We prove a definability result for this polarized model and this gives complete game models for various classical systems: , λμ-calculus, … for both call-by-name and call-by-value evaluations.

We give the precise correspondence between polarized linear logic and polarized classical logic. The properties of focalization and reversion of linear proofs are at the heart of our analysis: we show that the tq-protocol of normalization for the classical systems and perfectly fits normalization of polarized proof-nets. Some more semantical considerations allow us to recover LC as a refinement of multiplicative.

In this essay, I attempt to define the 'ethnocategory' mushi in Japanese culture, through a semantic analysis of the Chinese characters bearing the radical "mushi," and fieldwork research in rural Japan. The research offers criteria for an animal's inclusion in the category, reveals the differences in people's perception of mushi according to age and gender, and elicits a structure of the category as a series of concentric circles around a semantic core. The richness and complexity of the findings provide insight (...) into Japanese attitudes towards animals and nature. (shrink)

This article highlights the challenge of environmental inequality in France within the framework of social-ecology, an approach relating ecological crises to social issues, especially inequality. It starts by defining the notions of environmental inequality and environmental justice within the framework of the; ‘capability approach’ and then reviews recent empirical studies that show how air pollution, chemical and noise pollutions, access to environmental resources and exposure to social-ecological disasters are socially differentiated in France and can be understood, under the definition adopted (...) in this article, as a form of injustice. It concludes by reviewing issues raised by environmental inequality in France and exploring policy solutions able to address this challenge. (shrink)

Platon, dans les Lois, renonce au vocabulaire des « parties de l’âme » et souligne l’unité de l’activité psychique humaine: nous sommes mus de l’extérieur, comme une marionnette par des fils (I, 644c-645a). Comment comprendre la mollesse de l’or et la dureté du fer dont il est alors question? Y a-t-il nécessairement conflit entre ces différentes impulsions?

The contrast, often painted in simplistic colours, between Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X as civil rights campaigners bolsters an erroneous reading of the freedom struggle of African-Americans, leaving the impression that the resort to violence and self-defence propounded by Malcolm X was a purely circumstantial departure from the general strategy of the civil rights movement. In fact, both of them reflected long on the capacity of violence and a contrario of non-violence to bring about political and social transformation (...) in the context of the extreme brutality and oppression being suffered by African-Americans. Their dilemma stemmed from an old intellectual tradition of the America of the slave period. Well before the ideas of Gandhi won over the African-American elite, and even before Henry David Thoreau laid the theoretical basis for civil disobedience, African slaves gave thought to the legitimacy and effectiveness of violence to amend their situation. The importance of the non-violent movement in the United States and the historical significance of Martin Luther King cannot be understood unless a true measure is taken of the anti-slavery struggle. While within the religious domain, the Black Church played a major role in dissuading violence, secular thought in favour of legitimate forceful rebellion also found itself confronted by a counter-argument which advanced the power of social change and resistance to injustice that non-violence could effect. This article particularly addresses the challenges to their consciences that confronted the militants of non-violence in their campaign for the abolition of slavery and notably those facing the central figure of that struggle, the former slave become the apostle of liberation, Frederick Douglass. (shrink)

We consider a computational model comparing the possible roles of and in phonetic decoding, demonstrating that these two routes can contain similar information in some communication situations and highlighting situations where their decoding performance differs. We conclude that optimal decoding should involve some sort of fusion of association and simulation in the human brain.

L’étude de l’antonomase, qui est en fait un trope double puisqu’il existe des antonomases de nom propre et de nom commun, invite à plaider pour l’existence d’un système du nom propre fondé sur des positions et organisé à partir d’un prototype, les formes se situant à plus ou moins grande distance de celui-ci. Après avoir montré comment la catégorie du nom propre peut être structurée à partir d’un double mouvement de déconceptualisation et de conceptualisation, double mouvement dont les emplois du (...) nom propre portent la trace en discours, on montre que l’antonomase de nom commun, qui fige un lien référentiel, se situe à l’entrée du système du nom propre, quand l’antonomase de nom propre, qui construit une catégorie conceptuelle à partir d’une dénomination individuelle, renvoie à une position au-delà de laquelle disparaît la perception de la proprialité. Ces formes périphériques, qui illustrent un emploi figuré de la description définie et du nom propre, représentent des tropes complémentaires. On souligne in fine l’existence d’antonomases imbriquées, c’est-à-dire d’antonomases (de nom propre ou de nom commun) formées à partir d’une autre antonomase (de nom commun ou de nom propre). (shrink)