ABSTRACTStudies examining the interpretation that is given to if–then statementstypically use what are referred to as basic conditionals, which give contextless relations between two unrelated concrete terms. However, there is some evidence that basic conditionals require a more abstract form of representation. In order to examine this, we presented participants with truth-table tasks involving either basic conditionals or conditionals referring to imaginary categories, and standard conditional inference tasks with abstract and familiar premises. As expected, fewer typical defective conditional interpretations were (...) given to basic conditionals. In addition, partial correlations showed a unique relationship between the interpretation of basic conditionals and abstract inferential reasoning. Results suggest that people process basic conditionals as a form of abstract reasoning, and that the interpretation of conditionals... (shrink)

Il est apparu que le dernier mot n'avait pas ete dit sur ce texte de Porphyre, capital pour notre connaissance de la personne et de l'ecole de Plotin, et plus largement de la vie philosophique au IIIe siecle de notre ere. Car on est en presence d'un document dont la simplicite est illusoire: la traduction meme en est herissee de difficultes, qui, dans nombre de cas, semblent avoir jusqu'ici echappe a l'attention; d'autre part, la valeur historique de cette biographie, indubitable (...) en apparence, ne cesse en verite de faire probleme par suite de l'application de Porphyre a se donner en toute circonstance le beau role. De telles considerations, et d'autres encore, ont donne a penser que l'on ne perdrait pas son temps en reprenant l'etude de ce vieux texte sur des bases entierement nouvelles. (shrink)

Looks at Plato's theory of the cosmos, as well as what earlier Greeks thought of the makeup of the universe. Original.

The word myth is commonly thought to mean a fictional story, but few know that Plato was the first to use the term muthos in that sense. He also used muthos to describe the practice of making and telling stories, the oral transmission of all that a community keeps in its collective memory. In the first part of Plato the Myth Maker , Luc Brisson reconstructs Plato's multifaceted description of muthos in light of the latter's Atlantis story. The second (...) part of the book contrasts this sense of myth with another form of speech that Plato believed was far superior: the logos of philosophy. Gerard Naddaf's substantial introduction shows the originality and importance both of Brisson's method and of Plato's analysis and places it in the context of contemporary debates over the origin and evolution of the oral tradition. "[Brisson] contrasts muthos with the logos found at the heart of the philosophical reading. [He] does an excellent job of analyzing Plato's use of the two speech forms, and the translator's introduction does considerable service in setting the tone."-- Library Journal. (shrink)

Thomas More’s 1516 Utopia describes a ‘fictitious’ republic on an imaginary island, and draws heavily on ancient political ideas. This paper explores the difficulties of applying the term ‘utopia’ to Plato’s political thinking, given that More’s term is anachronistically applied to ancient texts. The projects of the Republic and Laws should not be interpreted as ‘utopian’, but as blueprints for a foundation such as a new city, rather than as imagined ideal cities after More’s model. Support for Plato’s practical involvement (...) in matters of political foundation is drawn from the Seventh Letter. The Republic and the Laws are discussed not as utopias, but political manifestos. The political context in which Plato lived, and his objectives, gives his political writings a wholly different dimension. The goal of the Republic and the Laws is not to describe unrealizable constitutions, but to exchange the Athenian constitution of Plato’s time for another. (shrink)

Edition de l'ensemble des quarante-cinq dialogues de Platon et de seize dialogues attribués ou apocryphes. Avec une introduction générale.

Les lettres présentent, par rapport au reste de l'œuvre de Platon, un double intérêt : là seulement le philosophe parle à la première personne, là seulement il se décrit en action. Les Lettres nous présentent un autre Platon que celui des dialogues, celui qui, tout jeune homme, veut jouer un rôle politique à Athènes et qui, plus tard, cherche à réaliser à Syracuse les projets politiques qu'on trouve exposés d'abord dans la République, puis dans le Politique et dans les Lois. (...) Par là, Platon ouvre une tradition qui se maintiendra après lui, comme en font foi, entre autres, les exemples de Descartes auprès de Christine de Suède, de Voltaire auprès de Frédéric II de Prusse ou de Diderot auprès de Catherine II de Russie : celui du philosophe conseiller du chef d'Etat. (shrink)

Platon, comme tout philosophe, a tenté de résoudre des problèmes en forgeant des concepts. Plutôt qu'à des termes, dont bon nombre n'ont pas de stricts et uniques équivalents en français, ce sont à ces concepts (la connaissance, les formes intelligibles, l'âme) que nous avons consacré les notices qui suivent, en privilégiant ceux dont l'élaboration puis l'usage occupent l'ensemble ou la majeure partie de l'œuvre. Les commentateurs anciens qui enseignaient Platon comme on ravive un ensemble de vérités incontestables s'intéressaient plus que (...) tout à la manière dont celui qu'ils tenaient pour le Philosophe avait exposé ces vérités. Ils cherchaient dans les dialogues une méthodologie du vrai. Notre platonisme, bien qu'invétéré, a pris une forme plus moderne : nous avons tenté de montrer comment Platon travaillait un discours de manière à satisfaire ce désir de savoir dont il voulait faire le sujet de la vie bonne. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Journal of the History of Philosophy 41.3 (2003) 410-411 [Access article in PDF] S. P. Ward. Penology and Eschatology in Plato's Myths. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. Pp. v + 295. Cloth, $99.95.In this work the author begins by asking himself the following question: What is an eschatological myth? The adjective "eschatological" indicates that the discourse it qualifies is concerned with the last things; that is, death and (...) the judgment of souls that follows it. Hence, the relation that may be established between eschatology understood in this sense and penology, which refers to the punishments the soul undergoes at the end of its earthly existence. As far as the meaning of 'myth' is concerned, the author, influenced by G. S. Kirk (The Nature of Greek Myths [Penguin, 1974]), adopts a relativist position. He does not think it possible to give a general definition; therefore, he limits himself to pointing out some of the characteristics of this type of discourse, on the basis of passages from the Platonic corpus which are usually considered as myths.Having set his analytical tools in place, the author proposes a commentary on the eschatological myths at the end of the Gorgias (523a-527e), at the end of the Phaedo (107c-115a), at the end of Republic X (614b-621d), in the Phaedrus (246a-249d), in some parts of the Timaeus (42b-d, 91a-92c), and in the Laws (903a-905d). He then examines the relations between penology and eschatology in the dialogues of the first period, the intermediary period, and old age.Although Plato takes his inspiration from traditional myths, those that appear in the dialogues are distinguished from traditional myths by two features: a scientific background, which indicates an influence from the Presocratics; and the role played by elements proper [End Page 410] to the Platonic doctrine. The insertion of considerations of a scientific nature into myths makes them more credible, but is not enough to make them into true discourses. Thus, the question of the relation in Plato between these myths and his philosophical doctrine remains open. Nevertheless, and although it is sometimes difficult to justify particular points in the myths, it is still true that we can note a great deal of coherence between what they recount and the ethical questions developed in the dialogues in which they appear.In spite of this consistency, one observes an evolution in the way these myths are presented. In the Gorgias, the punishments inflicted on the soul by the gods are presented as intended to make the soul better. The idea of reincarnation plays no role here, but it is present in the Phaedo. In this dialogue, however, the question arises of how to harmonize reincarnation with post-mortem punishments which, because of it, no longer seem to be necessary. In the Republic, emphasis is placed instead on the role of individual responsibility in the process of reincarnation. The Phaedrus continues in this direction, but is characterized by its allusions to the theory of intelligible forms. In the Timaeus, by contrast, Plato abandons the theme of a way of life and that of the judgment of souls, for a vision of the process of reincarnation that is integrated, not without difficulty, within a cosmological vision. The Laws continue along this path.This analysis shows that Plato evolved on questions of eschatology and penology, even if he did not radically change his mind. Yet there is one point on which he never varied: even if he did not establish precise frontiers between science and religion, Plato never thought his myths to be true discourses, but he always considered their capacity for ethical edification and their pedagogical value.This work is clear and well structured. It is completed by a bibliography and a general index, is easy to read, and presents a genuine usefulness. One also notes, on the part of the author, a good overall knowledge of the whole of Greek literature, from the origins to the end of Antiquity. Nevertheless, three criticisms may be made: (1) This publication merely reproduces the format... (shrink)

This study explains how the myths of Greece and Rome were transmitted from antiquity to the Renaissance. Luc Brisson argues that philosophy was ironically responsible for saving myth from historical annihilation. Although philosophy was initially critical of myth because it could not be declared true or false and because it was inferior to argumentation, mythology was progressively reincorporated into philosophy through allegorical exegesis. Brisson shows to what degree allegory was employed among philosophers and how it enabled myth to (...) take on a number of different interpretive systems throughout the centuries: moral, physical, psychological, political, and even metaphysical. How Philosophers Saved Myths also describes how, during the first years of the modern era, allegory followed a more religious path, which was to assume a larger role in Neoplatonism. Ultimately, Brisson explains how this embrace of myth was carried forward by Byzantine thinkers and artists throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance after the triumph of Chistianity, Brisson argues, myths no longer had to agree with just history and philosophy but the dogmas of the Church as well. (shrink)

In the present article, we consider the question of the primary elements in Plato’s Timaeus, the components of the whole universe reduced, by an extraordinarily elegant construction, to two right triangles. But how does he reconcile such a model with the infinite diversity of the universe? A large part of this study is devoted to Cornford’s explanation in his commentary of the Timaeus and its shortcomings, in order to finally propose a revised one, which we think to be entirely consistent (...) with Plato’s text. This analysis is an essential step for the understanding of the connection between the sensible world and the mathematical principles that underlies Timaeus’ cosmological account. (shrink)

This chapter contains sections titled: Going Beyond Nature in Order to Explain it Technē, epistēmē and alēthēs doxa Mathematics, pure and applied Observation and Experimental Verification Bibliography.

Les etudes ici reunies rendent compte de ce que furent le contexte historique et litteraire de la redaction des dialogues platoniciens, puis de la maniere dont leur auteur a choisi de confronter sa philosophie a la mythologie, afin de mener une enquete sur le monde, l'ame et la cite. Ces lectures veulent prendre ainsi la mesure de ce qui nous eloigne aujourd'hui de Platon, mais suggerer encore qu'une histoire de la philosophie qui cherche a s'affranchir de l'anachronisme trace un chemin (...) vers la philosophie. (shrink)

In Plato’s eponymous dialogue, Timaeus, the main character presents the universe as an (almost) perfect sphere filled by tiny, invisible particles having the form of four regular polyhedrons. At first glance, such a construction may seem close to an atomistic theory. However, one does not find any text in Antiquity that links Timaeus’ cosmology to the atomists, while Aristotle opposes clearly Plato to the latter. Nevertheless, Plato is commonly presented in contemporary literature as some sort of atomist, sometimes as supporting (...) a form of so-called ‘mathematical atomism’. However, the term ‘atomism’ is rarely defined when applied to Plato. Since it covers many different theories, it seems that this term has almost as different meanings as different authors. The purpose of this article is to consider whether it is correct to connect Timaeus’ cosmology to some kind of ‘atomism’, however this term may be understood. Its purpose is double: to obtain a better understanding of the cosmology of the Timaeus, and to consider the different modern ‘atomistic’ interpretations of this cosmology. In short, we would like to show that such a claim, in any form whatsoever, is misleading, an impediment to the understanding of the dialogue, and more generally of Plato’s philosophy. (shrink)

L'auteur résume dans cet article le contenu du commentaire du Phèdre qui doit paraître en mai 1998. Le Phèdre constitue un véritable « manifeste » qui présente un programme dans lequel Platon, alors âgé de soixante à soixante-cinq ans environ, prend position sur la question de l'écriture, à un moment où celle-ci était en train de se substituer à l'oralité pour constituer un instrument de communication privilégié. Dans le Phèdre, Platon veut montrer que, au moment même où il écrit, il (...) est le plus grand écrivain de la Grèce. Il démontre ce point en deux étapes: il entame tout d'abord une « joute oratoire » avec Lysias, alors considéré comme le meilleur écrivain de son temps, où il fait montre de sa supériorité sur les rhéteurs tant sur la forme que sur le contenu; il propose ensuite une théorie de l'art d'écrire dont le caractère adéquat se fonde sur la méthode dialectique. Il énonce de surcroît les trois critères fondamentaux qui doivent gouverner tous les discours, que ceux-ci soient écrits ou oraux: 1 / il faut connaître l'essence de la chose dont on parle; 2 / il faut connaître la nature des âmes auxquelles on s'adresse; 3 / il faut adapter les contenus des messages que l'on veut communiquer aux capacités de réception des âmes auxquelles on s'adresse. Toutefois, les messages du philosophe ne peuvent être transmis par la seule écriture: les choses les plus précieuses, le philosophe les écrit dans les âmes des hommes, autrement dit, il les communique dans le registre de l' « oralité dialectique ». Les discours écrits n'ont aucune autonomie, puisqu'ils ont, de fait, besoin du « secours » de l'auteur. Pour comprendre les discours écrits, fussent-ils les meilleurs, une connaissance préalable des choses dont ils traitent est nécessaire, connaissance qui ne peut être obtenue que par des voies différentes de celles que fournissent les discours écrits. The author summarizes in this article the content of his Phaedrus' commentary which will appear in May of 1998. The Phaedrus constitutes a true « manifesto ». It presents a programme in which Plato (who was then aged sixty or sixty-five), defends a position on the question of writing at a time when writing was being substituted for orality as the primary instrument of communication. In the Phaedrus, Plato wants to show, while he is writing it, that he is the greatest writer in Greece. He demonstrates this point in two stages: first, he initiates an « oratorical contest » with Lysias who was then considered the best writer of this time, where he shows his superiority over the orators both in form and in content; then, he proposes a theory of the art of writing the appropriate character of which is based on the dialectical method. Moreover, Plato states the three primary criteria which must govern any discourse whether oral or written: 1 / knowledge of the essence of what one speaks; 2 / knowledge of the nature of the souls to be addressed; 3 / knowledge of the content of the messages that one addressed. However, the messages of the philosopher cannot be transmitted only by writing. The most precious things are written by the philosopher in the souls of men, in other words, he communicates them in the register of dialectical orality. Written discourses have no autonomy since they need the « help » of the author. To understand written discourse, including the best, a preliminary knowledge of the things with which they deal is necessary, knowledge which can only be obtained through paths different from those which are provided by written discourse. (shrink)

These are inventions of the human mind. The scientific knowledge of the universe is entirely composed in a series of axioms and rules of inference underlying a formalized system.

L'article s'attaque aux racines mêmes du « mystère platonicien » en partant du constat de son caractère proprement « inexplicable »: qu'un auteur, dont on possède l'ensemble de l'œuvre écrite autorise des lectures, non seulement diverses, ce qui est légitime, mais également contradictoires, n'a aucun sens. L'article indique brièvement les éléments qui expliquent cette situation paradoxale et met en valeur les contributions de l'École de Tübingen (Krämer, Gaiser), qui insistent sur les « auto-témoignages » de Platon et sur la tradition (...) indirecte en vue d'une compréhension tout à fait nouvelle de Platon. L'auteur tente ensuite de dissiper quelques-unes des équivoques les plus graves qui grèvent le débat qu'elles ont suscité. L'article expose les analyses de Reale, qui éclairent d'un jour nouveau la valeur paradigmatique de cette nouvelle position, et l'apport de Szlezák, qui produit l'analyse des techniques d'écriture employées par Platon. Les commentaires de Movia et de Migliori prouvent finalement la puissance herméneutique du « nouveau paradigme » et apportent une série d'approfondissements explicatifs, surtout au sujet de la dialectique. The article tackles the roots of the « Plato mystery », beginning with its « inexplicable » existence. It is a nonsensical that an author, whose written corpus we possess, is not only open to different valid interpretations, but even to contradictory ones. After pointing out the elements behind this paradoxical situation, the contributions of the Tübingen school (Krämer, Gaiser) that enhance Plato's own testimony and the indirect tradition in respect of a renewed Platonic comprehension, are underlined. The author then attempts to eliminate some of the major misunderstandings which blocked the previous debate. The article exposes Reale's analysis, who clarifies the paradigmatic value of the new proposal, and the Szlezák's contribution, who threats the analysis of the writing techniques of Plato. Finally Movia's and Migliori's commentaries verify the hermeneutical capabilities of the « new paradigma » and bring a set of thorough examination of the dialectic mainly. (shrink)

“Teleology,” a word invented in 1728 by Christian Wolff, has become a magic formula among those who are interested in Plato, Aristotle, and even the Stoics. Among our contemporaries, “teleology” in fact enables modern physical theories based on mechanical necessity to be opposed to ancient explanations that try to master chance by means of a good and benevolent intellect. The question in this paper will be to determine whether this explanation, which refers above all to Aristotle’s doctrine of causes and (...) more precisely to the final cause, can be found in Plato’s Timaeus. (shrink)

À la différence de la plupart des autres commentateurs, je soutiens que l’histoire de l’univers évoquée dans le mythe du Politique comprend trois périodes : le règne de Kronos décrit en 271c3-272d6, le monde laissé à lui-même évoqué en 272d6-273e4 et le règne de Zeus, le nôtre, décrit en 273e4-274d7. La période d’abandon ne peut correspondre à la nôtre, au cours de laquelle, suivant Platon, les dieux sont actifs et jouent un rôle important. Un passage du Timée et surtout le (...) dixième livre des Lois laissent en effet entendre qu’il s’agit là d’une « expérience de pensée », destinée à illustrer dans quel état serait le monde s’il était livré a lui-même. (shrink)

When, in Plato’s Parmenides 155e4–157b5, Parmenides refers to the instant (ἐξαίφνης), he is alluding to a paradox of Zeno, and not to an argument of Plato. Thus, in the second part of the Parmenides, the speaker is a fair representation of the historical Parmenides, and not a figment of Plato’s imagination.

"The articles in this volume are a selection of the papers presented at the Sixth Symposium Platonicum of the International Plato Society, under the auspices of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities and of the Faculty of Humanities of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. They reflect the breadth of topics and the range of problems present in Plato's Laws : problems of editing and literary form, rhetoric and style, Homeric quotations ; the Socratic influence ; soul and motion ; (...) pleasure, virtue and happiness, ethics and education, gender ; public offices, economics, and philosophy of history ; political philosophy and religion. Addressed are also the historical and literary contexts of the Laws and its later repercussions."--taken from back cover. (shrink)

The universe is the result of a production that pertains not to craft, but to nature. This production does not involve either reasoning or concepts, but is the result of a power that acts on matter like an imprint. The Intellect transmits the intelligible forms it harbors, to the hypostasis Soul, where they become rational formulas. The hypostasis Soul then transmits these rational formulas to the world soul, which produces animate and inanimate beings, as if it had been ordered to (...) do so. Yet since it is the lower part of the soul of the world that is responsible for these productions, its action, which depends on reasons that do not hold the first rank and are drawn from itself, manifests inferior quality, which explains imperfection and the presence of evil in the sensible universe, despite its government by Providence. (shrink)

How was the Neoplatonic School of Athens able to maintain itself for more than a century at Athens, in a hostile environment, while being the target of the opposition of the Christians who were not only in the majority, but also held political power? These are the questions this text seeks to answer. Although it does not promise any earth-shaking discovery, it will try to sketch a clear and precise portrait of the Neoplatonic School of Athens on the family, political (...) and economic level. (shrink)