The interpretation of quantum mechanics presented in this paper is inspired by two ideas that are fundamental in Bohr’s writings: indivisibility and complementarity. Further basic assumptions of the proposed interpretation are completeness, universality and conceptual economy. In the interpretation, decoherence plays a fundamental role for the understanding of measurement. A general and precise conception of complementarity is proposed. It is fundamental in this interpretation to make a distinction between ontological reality, constituted by everything that does not depend at all on (...) the collectivity of human beings, nor on their decisions or limitations, nor on their existence, and empirical reality constituted by everything that not being ontological is, however, intersubjective. According to the proposed interpretation, neither the dynamical properties, nor the constitutive properties of microsystems like mass, charge and spin, are ontological. The properties of macroscopic systems and space-time are also considered to belong to empirical reality. The acceptance of the above mentioned conclusion does not imply a total rejection of the notion of ontological reality. In the paper, utilizing the Aristotelian ideas of general cause and potentiality, a relation between ontological reality and empirical reality is proposed. Some glimpses of ontological reality, in the form of what can be said about it, are finally presented. (shrink)

To repoliticize the body is to assert that human beings do not have bodies, but they are bodies. The human being is a living body. This idea frames a fundamental ethical question—“which human lives are worth living?”—in different terms: “which bodies are apt or conformable to become human?”. To address this question, which this article intends to, is to engage in transformative philosophy. Two contemporary currents of thought dive into this vital issue: cyborg feminism and queer feminism. From a decolonial (...) standpoint, a focus on the bodies that suffer and an orientation towards possible futures, where life might not be the privilege of some particular kinds of corporality, will prove fruitful to begin unraveling the answer. (shrink)

Este libro es un homenaje a la trayectoria intelectual y académica de la profesora María Teresa López de la Vieja, Catedrática emérita de la Universidad de Salamanca. En él se trazan algunos de los caminos que, con su obra, nos invita a transitar. El volumen recoge contribuciones de colegas de varias nacionalidades y procedentes de diversos ámbitos de reflexión que le son afines: la filosofía moral y política, la literatura, la teoría de la argumentación, los estudios feministas, las éticas aplicadas, (...) la bioética. Los capítulos que componen este libro dan voz a varias generaciones de investigadoras e investigadores que han acompañado y acompañan su andadura académica y que aquí dialogan con ella haciendo propias sus preocupaciones intelectuales. Con su participación contribuyen al justo reconocimiento de su dedicación a la labor docente e investigadora. (shrink)

En 1986 Edgar Garavito Pardo escribió un artículo en homenaje a Michel Foucault, quien había muerto dos años antes, y que fue titulado De la parrhesía o el decir-verdad. En este escrito el colmbiano asume el decir-verdad como una línea de fuga que tiende a la autenticidad de los valores por más confrontaciones que exista con el poder, pues el decir-verdad es el decir verdad de lo que uno es, hace y piensa sin dejarse coaccionar por los convencionalismo políticos, mediáticos (...) e identitarios, y en ese sentido, para Garavito el decir-verdad como “actitud podría salvar a Colombia”, es decir, salvaguardar la democracia desde una actitud democrática que se encuentra validada en virtud del actuar del filósofo. El decir-verdad permite que la vida y la política coincidan a través de un lenguaje liberado, anárquico y transcursivo. Desde un ejercicio hermenéutico crítico, usado de manera filosófica, se aborda el autor para proponer una lectura original de la parrhesía de Edgar Garavito Pardo en relación con la transcursividad, que es el aspecto transformativo del lenguaje. (shrink)

In this paper I discuss the version of predicative analysis put forward by Hermann Weyl in "Das Kontinuum". I try to establish how much of the underlying motivation for Weyl's position may be due to his acceptance of a phenomenological philosophical perspective. More specifically, I analyze Weyl's philosophical ideas in connexion with the work of Husserl, in particular "Logische Untersuchungen" and "Ideen I". I believe that this interpretation of Weyl can clarify the views on mathematical existence and mathematical intuition which (...) are implicit in "Das Kontinuum". (shrink)

El trabajo que presentamos tiene dos objetivos principales: primeramente, conocer las principales características estructurales y funcionales del funduq; en segundo lugar, observar la evolución tanto estructural como funcional que estos espacios sufrieron dentro y fuera del territorio islámico. Para ello utilizaremos la información arqueológica disponible que se complementará con algunos datos provenientes de la documentación escrita. Así conoceremos el funduq clásico, un edificio de planta cuadrada o rectangular, con patio central y uno o varios pisos, dedicados el inferior a cuadras (...) y almacenes y los superiores a alojamiento de los viajeros/mercaderes. De este edificio encontraremos dos variaciones. Por una parte, el fondaco, un espacio arrendado o donado por las autoridades musulmanas a las comunidades cristianas de mercaderes que cumplía con todas las necesidades de estos últimos (religiosas, sociales y económicas). Y por otra, la alhóndiga, una institución con unas funciones específicas de almacenamiento y recogida de impuestos de determinadas mercancías. (shrink)

In this paper I discuss the version of predicative analysis put forward by Hermann Weyl in Das Kontinuum. I try to establish how much of the underlying motivation for Weyl''s position may be due to his acceptance of a phenomenological philosophical perspective. More specifically, I analyze Weyl''s philosophical ideas in connexion with the work of Husserl, in particular Logische Untersuchungen} and Ideen .I believe that this interpretation of Weyl can clarify the views on mathematical existence and mathematical intuition which are (...) implicit in Das Kontinuum. (shrink)

Husserl left many unpublished drafts explaining (or trying to) his views on spatial representation and geometry, such as, particularly, those collected in the second part of Studien zur Arithmetik und Geometrie (Hua XXI), but no completely articulate work on the subject. In this paper, I put forward an interpretation of what those views might have been. Husserl, I claim, distinguished among different conceptions of space, the space of perception (constituted from sensorial data by intentionally motivated psychic functions), that of physical (...) geometry (or idealized perceptual space), the space of the mathematical science of physical nature (in which science, not only raw perception has a word) and the abstract spaces of mathematics (free creations of the mathematical mind), each of them with its peculiar geometrical structure. Perceptual space is proto-Euclidean and the space of physical geometry Euclidean, but mathematical physics, Husserl allowed, may find it convenient to represent physical space with a non-Euclidean structure. Mathematical spaces, on their turn, can be endowed, he thinks, with any geometry mathematicians may find interesting. Many other related questions are addressed here, in particular those concerning the a priori or a posteriori character of the many geometric features of perceptual space (bearing in mind that there are at least two different notions of a priori in Husserl, which we may call the conceptual and the transcendental a priori). I conclude with an overview of Weyl’s ideas on the matter, since his philosophical conceptions are often traceable back to his former master, Husserl. (shrink)

In the first year of the twentieth century, in Gottingen, Husserl delivered two talks dealing with a problem that proved central in his philosophical development, that of imaginary elements in mathematics. In order to solve this problem Husserl introduced a logical notion, called “definiteness”, and variants of it, that are somehow related, he claimed, to Hilbert’s notions of completeness. Many different interpretations of what precisely Husserl meant by this notion, and its relations with Hilbert’s ones, have been proposed, but no (...) consensus has been reached. In this paper I approach this question afresh and thoroughly, taking into consideration not only the relevant texts and context, as others have also done before, but, more importantly, Husserl’s philosophy, his intuition-based epistemology in particular. Based on a system of clearly defined concepts that I here present, I reinforce an interpretation—definiteness as a form of syntactic completeness—that has, I believe, some advantages vis-à-vis alternative interpretations. It is in conformity with the available texts; it makes clear that Husserl’s notion of definiteness is indeed close to Hilbert’s notions of completeness; it solves the important problem of imaginaries for which it was created; and last, but not least, it fits naturally into Husserl’s system of concepts and ideas. (shrink)

This article is mainly about two things: first, exploring the gatherings of studying in the university. And second, it is about describing new relations to understand studying practices beyond the normative interventions carried out inside learning environments and the clearly demarcated functions imposed to their practice. In a certain sense, common assumptions about study recognize its importance for achieving learning goals and its capacity to be designed according to pre-conceived intentions. However, in an attempt to reconsider our understanding about studying, (...) the basic arguments here is that studying practices are constituted by open-ended activities that are guided by present interests to things that matter. Based on Theodore Schatzki’s practice theory, activities of studying were observed through scenes, where students and study-materiality join together in the event of studying at the Agora Learning Centre of KU Leuven in Belgium. Adopting a particular sensibility and narrative to describe and attend to actions and material entities entangled on studying activities, the article attempts to take a look at these activities beyond their functionality. Therefore, the main purpose of this research is to take a look at ‘what is going on’ in studying practices. (shrink)

Fact-checking agencies assess and score the truthfulness of politicians’ claims to foster their electoral accountability. Fact-checking is sometimes presented as a quasi-scientific activity, based on reproducible verification protocols that would guarantee an unbiased assessment. We will study these verification protocols and discuss under which conditions fact-checking could achieve effective reproducibility. Through an analysis of the methodological norms in verification protocols, we will argue that achieving reproducible fact-checking may not help much in rendering politicians accountable. Political fact-checkers do not deliver either (...) reproducibility or accountability today, and there are reasons to think that traditional quality journalism may serve liberal democracies better. (shrink)

Este artículo examina la recepción de la cultura clásica en la prosa de Gabriela Mistral. Frente a la retórica y la idealización academicistas, Mistral busca la Antigüedad viva en los poetas y los pueblos mediterráneos, y reivindica para América la herencia grecolatina del humanismo cristiano This paper examines the reception of Classical culture in Gabriela Mistral's prose writings. Faced with the rhetoric and idealized vision of academicism, Mistral seeks Antiquity living in poets and Mediterranean peoples, and she vindicates for America (...) the Greco-Latin heritage of Christian humanism. (shrink)

La contingencia es para Leibniz, junto con la espontaneidad y la inteligencia, un componente esencial de la definición de la verdadera libertad, que nuestro pensador califica como uno de los problemas filosóficos por excelencia: “la cuestión de saber cómo se puede salir del laberinto, la gran cuestión de lo libre y lo necesario” (Teodicea, OFC, 10, 11).Leibniz, en diálogo con sus referentes polémicos (Descartes, Spinoza, Hobbes, Arnauld, King, Bayle, Clarke, entre otros) diferenciará –siguiendo la herencia agustiniana- entre el “libre albedrío” (...) y la “verdadera libertad” o determinación racional, a la que sitúa en un camino intermedio entre el determinismo absoluto y la indiferencia de equilibrio. La libertad de los seres racionales será para Leibniz la condición sine qua non para entrar a formar parte del el reino de la gracia, un mundo moral dentro del mundo natural en el que impera el bien común. (shrink)

Philosophy of history has been condemned in recent times; however, it is becoming increasingly evident that a new Europe cannot do without a critical philosophy of history that analyses values and gives hierarchical structure to diverse experiences and historical memories. From this hypothesis, a result of previous projects, the project “Philosophy of History and Values in the Europe of the 21st century” has these fundamental objectives: 1) critically analyze the complex forms of conceiving science, history (society), culture (languages, religion), law, (...) ethics and politics, in order to understand the full scope of the idea of Europe in which we find ourselves; 2) systemize them with the proposal for a new critical philosophy of history, based on a “practical turn” that contemplates the elements (real responsibility, solidarity and justice) that should form the foundation of social and ethical political relations; 3) apply them to the constructionof a new Europe, in which implicit diversity and the demands of internationality, interculturality and dialogue between the genders can reconcile itself with the basic principles of universality, equality and justice and with the establishment of minimum human rights. The conclusions of our research will help to provide solutions to conflicts that are occurring in the heart of Europe, which at the high point of globalization, transcend European borders. (shrink)

In this paper I argue for the view that structuralism offers the best perspective for an acceptable account of the applicability of mathematics in the empirical sciences. Structuralism, as I understand it, is the view that mathematics is not the science of a particular type of objects, but of structural properties of arbitrary domains of entities, regardless of whether they are actually existing, merely presupposed or only intentionally intended.

Jairo Moreno adapts the methodologies and nomenclature of Foucault’s "archaeology of knowledge" and applies it through individual case studies to the theoretical writings of Zarlino, Descartes, Rameau, and Weber. His conclusion summarizes the conditions—musical, philosophical, and historical—that "make a certain form of thought about music necessary and possible at the time it emerges." Musical Meaning and Interpretation—Robert S. Hatten, editor.

¿Qué es el materialismo y cómo este opera en la praxis psicoanalítica? Esa es la pregunta a la cual este artículo intenta responder, para eso se realiza un breve recorrido histórico conceptual por algunas apuestas teórico-prácticas desde Freud, pasando por Lacan hasta pensadores contemporáneos. Se profundizó en algunas nociones de Slavoj Žižek, específicamente en su concepción materialista o lo que él mismo denomina «una refundación del materialismo dialéctico», donde se presenta una mezcla inconsciente no-toda. Es a propósito de dicha perspectiva (...) teórica que en este trabajo se ponen en tela de juicio algunos debates clínicos desde la filosofía y el psicoanálisis. (shrink)

The purpose of this investigation is to establish the interference of Artificial Intelligence in the legal field, with special attention to the legal decision. For this, a descriptive analysis of its use in judicial, administrative and legislative decisions is carried out addressing scenarios of substantive, procedural and probative law in order to solve the following legal question: Is artificial intelligence an instrument to adopt legal decisions or Is it a new entity that generates legal decisions? This question is developed taking (...) into account different sources of law, including judicial pronouncements, doctrine and legislation that develops the use of artificial intelligence, which are analyzed with government and state policies that have raised their incorporation into the field of law. (shrink)

Este artículo de reflexión, que hace parte de la investigación De la polis a la politeia. La política hoy, propone un éxodo semiológico (semiótica a-significante) como resistencia al gobierno de signos de los Mass Media, lo que siguiendo a Paolo Virno se llama industria comunicacional; para sustentar esta propuesta se recurre a la teoría del éxodo que exponen los operaístas como Antonio Negri, Paolo Virno, Michael Hardt y Víctor Moncayo y que propende por la huida y el escape del sistema (...) dominante y no por la búsqueda del poder estatal. (shrink)

This article is a product of research about global public policies. In this is proposes an ethical basis of international cooperation as a GPP capable of providing public world goods of the international system. Through an analysis of the recent theoretical framework of IC it is concluded that such theories, even those that do not declare it explicitly, are based on Kantian cosmopolitan ethics. Even those theories that are based on the hobbesian premise of natural anarchy in state of war. (...) In this article also is suggests the urgency of an international governance system with a GPP focused in cooperation and capable to providing the world's supreme public good: The peace with human security. (shrink)

CONTENIDO: Itinerarios nietzscheanos / Aníbal Córdoba M. / - Nietzscher y la historia / Luis Antonio Restrepo A. / - Lenguaje, genealogía e interpretación / Jairo Montoya G. / - El amor y la muerte en la vida y el pensamiento de Nietzsche / Carlos Mario González R. / - La caverna de la interpretación / Jorge Mario Mejía T. / - Genealogía y poder / Jean Paul Margot / - Nietzche y la escritura / Jorge Alberto Naranjo M. (...) / - Salud, enfermedad, música. Reflexiones sobre la filosofía de Friedrich Nietzsche / Javier Escobar I / - Nietzche y Deleuze: encuentros / Juan Gonzalo Moreno V. (shrink)

Para este ensayo es necesario introducir un concepto que se denominará premisas de la conversación, teniendo en cuenta el planteamiento de los teóricos de la argumentación en su propuesta de premisas de la argumentación. Dichas premisas son tomadas de algunos estudiosos del lenguaje que han observado qué estructuras, normas y ceremonias se perfilan para que se dé la conversación. No basta, como sugieren los teóricos de la nueva retórica, con hablar un idioma para desarrollar una conversación, pues, se requiere de (...) mucho más, y esto es, de normas y estructuras que subyacen en ella misma; y agregan, nadie lo sabe mejor que el autor de Alicia en el país de las maravillas. La Alicia de Carroll, tanto en el país de las maravillas como a través del espejo, le es casi imposible entablar una conversación con alguno de los personajes fantásticos que se presentan en las dos obras. Porque además de saber usar unas reglas gramaticales y un léxico, es necesario saber que, al usar la lengua, o como lo llama Austin acto locucionario, también hay que ser consciente de que el uso de la lengua es social, por lo que requiere de ciertas condiciones, ceremonias y reglas que a continuación expondremos. (shrink)

El profesor Patiño logra en este libro dos objetivos claves para el estudioso de la Filosofía del Lenguaje y la comunicación: por un lado, sintetiza temáticamente los principales aportes que se han hecho para que surja y se consolide la Filosofía del Lenguaje y su estudio sistemático sobre los actos de habla o actos de lenguaje que intervienen en la comunicación; y por otro lado, de una manera crítica, actualiza los temas y problemas que se han discutido en diferentes campos (...) relacionados con el tema. (shrink)

Desde la antigüedad greco-latina viene planteado un problema que aún persiste en nuestrosdías ¿cuál es el estatuto que nos permite distinguir claramente la especificidad de un textoescrito? La necesidad de presentar a uno de los filósofos más emblemáticos, Sócrates, a lasnuevas generaciones creó un reto difícil de superar. El hecho de que este pensador nodejara obra escrita ni planteara una teoría específica, pero al tiempo fuese un ejemplo depensador y de vida, hizo a los que le conocieron, se propusieran reconstruir (...) esta difícilfaceta de una forma vívida. Tanto Platón, Jenofonte, Antístenes y Esquines, los másconocidos biógrafos de Sócrates, tuvieron que ingeniárselas para hacer pasar a la historia aeste genial filósofo. Según noticias de Werner Jeager en la época de estos filósofos seusaba una forma estilística denominada Enkonion o Elkonion, para hacer un retrato escritode una persona importante, una especie de panegírico que Aristóteles en su Retóricaclasifica como perteneciente uno de los géneros de la argumentación: el género epidíctico.En el análisis de este género discursivo se puede observar tal problemática. Por ejemplo losDiálogos de Platón, cuyo personaje central es Sócrates, están a medio camino entre lo quehoy conocemos como filosofía, retórica y literatura, y que en aquella época no se hacía taldistinción tajante como se hace hoy en día. Analizando la estructura de las diferentespresentaciones del filósofo podemos ver claramente que el problema que se les presentó alos biógrafos fue de retórica que es la base que fundamenta los discursos filosóficos yliterarios. (shrink)

Growing evidence in recent years has led to an agreement on the importance and benefits that inclusive education has for students with special educational needs (SEN). However, the extension and universalization of an inclusive approach will also be enhanced with more evidence on the benefits that inclusion has for all students, including those without SEN. Based on the existing knowledge that learning interactions among diverse students are a key component of educational inclusion, the aim of this study is to identify (...) the impact on students without SEN of being educated with students with SEN in shared, inclusive, interactive learning environments. Data were collected in three schools using a qualitative approach with a communicative orientation. Semistructured interviews were held with teachers as well as community volunteers participating in the schools. Further, focus groups were conducted with students and teachers. The results show that students without SEN benefit from participating in interactive learning activities with peers with SEN in different ways: (1) they learn to respect others, accept differences, and acknowledge different abilities, thereby creating opportunities for new friendships to develop; (2) they learn about abilities related to helping others participate and learn, to be patient and to gain the satisfaction in helping others learn and behave better; and (3) they benefit from the cognitive effort required to explain themselves and from the contributions of peers with SEN from which they can learn. (shrink)

Este artículo contiene la edición y traducción al castellano de cinco cartas conservadas en el Archivo nacional de la Torre do Tombo (Portugal). Estos documentos datan de la primera mitad del siglo XVI y forman parte de la correspondencia procedente de las plazas portuguesas en el Norte de África. Desde un punto de vista lingüístico, las cartas se caracterizan por estar escritas en árabe medio, una variedad de lengua que presenta importantes divergencias gramaticales con respecto a la norma del árabe (...) clásico y en la cual se combinan elementos dialectales y otros del árabe estándar. (shrink)

Political fact-checkers evaluate the truthfulness of politicians’ claims. This paper contributes to an emerging scholarly debate on whether fact-checkers treat political parties differently in a systematic manner depending on their ideology (bias). We first examine the available approaches to analyze bias and then present a new approach in two steps. First, we propose a logistic regression model to analyze the outcomes of fact-checks and calculate how likely each political party will obtain a truth score. We test our model with a (...) sample of fact-checks from Newtral, a major Spanish fact-checker. Our model would signal bias under two assumptions: a) all political parties are on average equally accurate in their statements; b) the verification method gives precise instructions and is implemented systematically. We investigate this second assumption with a series of interviews with Newtral fact-checkers. We show that standard verification protocols are so loosely implemented that fact-checks reflect a set of journalistic decisions, rather than a bias in the statistical sense. We call for a more rigorous definition of verification methods as a pre-requisite for an unbiased assessment of politician’s claims. (shrink)

In this paper, I carry out a comparative study of the philosophical views of Edmund Husserl and Hermann Weyl on issues such as mathematical existence and mathematical intuition, the validity of classical logic, the concept of logical definiteness, the nature of symbolic mathematics, the role of mathematics in empirical science, the relation of scientific theories with perception, space representation and the philosophy of geometry, and intentional constitution in general. My main goal is not simply to assess the extent of Husserl’s (...) influence on Weyl, although this is an ever present concern, but to clarify the views of one by contrasting them with those of the other. (shrink)

O texto pretende mostrar um tipo de abordagem e de entrada no texto deleuziano. A partir do problema do fato da não existência de consenso no mundo da vida sentiu-se a necessidade de começar a pensar e formular um conceito de formas de vida. Escolheu-se, para isto, a idéia de plano de imanência e o conceito de multiplicidade virtual de Deleuze. Apresentamos, então, uma espécie de roteiro desse percurso. É o conceito de formas de vida, articulado e pensado a partir (...) de Deleuze, a resposta ao problema da pluralidade e da diferença. (shrink)

Pretendemos analisar o conceito de substrato supra-sensível da humanidade presente na dialética da faculdade do juízo na terceira crítica. Kant entende a sociabilidade legal como a disposição de deixar-se guiar por princípios do direito, o homem como sociável (e não originariamente social) e o direito como condição de possibilidade da sociedade. Esse conceito aparece ligado, na terceira crítica, a um conceito de humanidade. Queremos investigar o conceito de humanidade no contexto estético examinando seu caráter suprasensível.

Nosso objetivo é compreender que figura de imanência a filosofia de Giordano Bruno constrói. Interessa-nos compreender como Bruno naturaliza Parmênides, ou como medita de forma diferente de Plotino o poema parmenidiano. Em Bruno vemos aparecer um componente que será precioso na determinaçáo positiva da idéia de imanência: a compreensáo de que náo há um fora radical à natureza. Bruno também criticará Scoto e sua figura da univocidade relacionada a um conceito neutro produzindo uma nova imagem da univocidade. Podemos interpretar Bruno (...) como o filósofo que pensa o Um a partir da natureza. A natureza é o Um infinito, náo há nada fora dela. Essa é a figura da imanência que desenvolveremos no artigo. (shrink)

The current techno-scientific revolution has transformed the concepts of person and human being. Techno-scientific developments raise questions about our very own humanity and bring again the Übermensch, about whom Nietzsche once spoke, for discussion. Technology has increased the desire to modify our human condition, aiming for the perfection of the physical, intellectual and psychological abilities. Different sciences and disciplines have had the necessity to adapt themselves to these techno-scientific transformations. Psychology has not been the exception and, because of that, a (...) new paradigm of approaching the human mind has been recently established. Concepts such as cybertherapy, virtual reality therapy to treat patients with phobias, and the use of Artificial Intelligence have revolutionized Psychology. Therefore, the purpose of the article is to establish whether the use of Artificial Intelligence in Psychotherapy actually contributes to the improvement of human beings by making possible progress within the field of Mental Health Care or, on the contrary, it poses a risk to humanity, which might face the possibility of replacing human therapists with intelligent machines. (shrink)

O tema deste artigo são as relações entre mídia e cultura, através do conflito simbólico que se instala a partir de um blow up: a torcedora Patrícia Moreira, em 2014, no jogo entre Grêmio e Santos, gritando a palavra 'ma-ca-co'. Esse tema é construído enquanto circulação midiática. Esse objeto, amplo e diversificado, é aqui abordado em torno de uma questão específica: a incerteza nos processos midiáticos. A metodologia é de análise das interações entre atores, instituições midiáticas e midiatizadas, configurando um (...) ambiente-circuito imprevisível. A proposição é que os dilemas e impasses sócio-antropológicos não são apenas atualizados nos processos midiáticos, mas são também transformados pelo contato entre territórios antes estabilizados. A instabilidade nas interações é sugerida como núcleo ativador do processo circulatório. (shrink)

En el presente trabajo se interpretan los sentidos teológicos de los términos bíblicos "carne" y "carnalidad" mostrando su carácter ambivalente que surge de binomios cargados tanto de connotaciones negativas como positivas. Se tratará de mostrar que las primeras parten de una interpretación parcial ..