Insoweit das Humesche Induktionsproblem die Frage der Rationalität des induktiven Vorgehens aufwirft, ist es in positiver Weise lösbar. Die Lösung basiert auf der Einsicht, daß es eine fundamentale Form der Induktion gibt, ohne welche Beobachtungen und Experimente überhaupt sinnlos würden, und ein rationales Verfahren zur Bestimmung einer induktiven Voraussetzung existiert, das eine bestimmte Fassung dieser Induktion validiert.

The explanation of animal communication by means of concepts like information, meaning and reference is one of the central foundational issues in animal behaviour studies. This book explores these issues, revolving around questions such as: • What is the nature of information? • What theoretical roles does information play in animal communication studies? • Is it justified to employ these concepts in order to explain animal communication? • What is the relation between animal signals and human language? The book approaches (...) the topic from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, including ethology, animal cognition, theoretical biology and evolutionary biology, as well as philosophy of biology and mind. A comprehensive introduction familiarises non-specialists with the field and leads on to chapters ranging from philosophical and theoretical analyses to case studies involving primates, birds and insects. The resulting survey of new and established concepts and methodologies will guide future empirical and theoretical research. (shrink)

In the following article, we propose an analytical framework for the analysis of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Standards based on the paradigmatic nexus of voice and entitlement. We follow the theory of decentration and present the concept of Transnational Norm-Building Networks (TNNs), which — as we argue — comprise a new nexus of voice and entitlement beyond the nation—state level. Furthermore, we apply the analytical framework to the ISO 26000 initiative and the Global Compact. We conclude the article with remarks (...) on the legitimacy and the effectiveness of norms generated by TNNs. Through this, we aim to contribute a new theoretical foundation to the analysis of CSR standards, which enables us to undertake a more differentiated description of TNN structures which have hitherto been ignored in academic literature. Secondly, we will contribute to the practical debate on ISO 26000 and the Global Compact by proposing new perspectives on the conditions of their legitimacy and effectiveness based on the voice-entitlement nexus. (shrink)

This paper explains how to obtain quantification over times in a tense logic in which all temporal distinctions are ultimately spelled out in terms of the two simple tense operators “it was the case that” and “it will be the case that.” The account of times defended here is similar to what is known as “linguistic ersatzism” about possible worlds, but there are noteworthy differences between these two cases. For example, while linguistic ersatzism would support actualism, the view of (...) times defended here does not support presentism. (shrink)

In this paper we present a modern version of the classic theory of “ultimate psychological hedonism” . As does the UPH, our two-dimensional model of metatelic orientations also postulates a fundamentally hedonistic motivation for any human action. However, it makes a distinction between “telic” or content-based goals of actions and “metatelic” or emotional reasons for actions. In our view, only the emotional reasons for action, but not the goals of action, conform to the UPH. After outlining our model, we (...) class='Hi'>will elucidate the similarities and differences between our model and classic UPH. In this context we will clarify several basic misconceptions regarding classic UPH. In a next step, two major criticisms of the theory of ultimate psychological hedonism will be discussed, that is the statement that the hedonistic principle has no motivating effect at all and the argument that the hedonistic motivation is only one of many motivations of human actions. We believe that both of these arguments can be refuted. Finally, we will discuss the compatibility of our model with evolutionary theory. (shrink)

Looking for an adequate explication of the concept of a biological function, several authors have proposed to link function to design. Unfortunately, known explications of biological design in turn refer to functions. The concept of general design I will introduce here breaks up this circle. I specify design with respect to its ontogenetic role. This allows function to be based on design without making reference to the history of the design, or to the phylogeny of an organism, while retaining (...) the normative aspect of function ascriptions. The concept is applicable to the function and design of technical artifacts as well. Several problems well known with other definitions can be overcome by this approach. (shrink)

"This collection of chapters illustrates how Posner's examination of elementary processes has moved the field toward a fundamental level of understanding about human cognition. This basic understanding will greatly affect how we deal with cognitive development problems that derive either from deficiency of experience or from genetic differences."--Jacket.

This article opens with general and historical remarks on philosophy of science's problems with the concept of discovery. Then, drawing upon simple examples of Watson's and Crick's non-philosophical usage, I characterize phrases of the type "x discovers y" semantically. It will subsequently be shown how widespread philosophical discussion on discovery violates the semantic constraints of phrases of the type "x discovers y." Then I provide a philosophical reconstruction of "x discovers y" that is in keeping with the "folk" notion (...) of discovery. The philosophical ingredients of this approach are taken from a certain aspect of action theory and from epistemological reliabilism. The approach draws upon the concept of superior action and connects this concept to progressive research. In contrast to normal actions, superior actions are primarily explained by competencies. This perspective includes reminders of what some nineteenth-century philosopher-scientists had advocated as a competence-oriented view on scientific research. Finally, this approach is applied to the case of Watson's and Crick's discovery. (shrink)

This paper develops a formal framework to model a process in which the formation of individual opinions is embedded in a deliberative exchange with others. The paper opts for a low-resolution modeling approach and abstracts away from most of the details of the social-epistemic process. Taking a bird's eye view allows us to analyze the chances for the truth to be found and broadly accepted under conditions of cognitive division of labour combined with a social exchange process. Cognitive division of (...) labour means that only some individuals are active truth seekers, possibly with different capacities. Both mathematical tools and computer simulations are used to investigate the model. As an analytical result, the Funnel Theorem states that under rather weak conditions on the social process, a consensus on the truth will be reached if all individuals possess an arbitrarily small capacity to go for the truth. The Leading the pack Theorem states that under certain conditions even a single truth seeker may lead all individuals to the truth. Systematic simulations analyze how close agents can get to the truth depending upon the frequency of truth seekers, their capacities as truth seekers, the position of the truth (more to the extreme or more in the centre of an opinion space), and the willingness to take into account the opinions of others when exchanging and updating opinions. (shrink)

The theory of practice is according to its self-conception a poststructuralistic research program. It is proceeding on the assumption of a body, that performs his material arrangement with artefacts on the basis of a social habitus in the sense of Bourdieu. In view of recent diagnosis of an affective turn in the social sciences the article fathoms on the basis of Michel Henry’s phenomenology the possibility to understand the (living) body as a body of mood or what he calls flesh. (...) The body which is always in a special mood thus has an influence on acting. In a further step this assumption will broaden the scope to the entire room of interaction, where the practices take place. This includes next to the body of mood, collective moods of social groups and atmospheres as further parameters. (shrink)

The essays collected in this volume explore some of the themes that have been at the centre of recent debates within Wittgensteinian scholarship. In opposition to what we are tentatively inclined to think, the articles of this volume invite us to understand that our need to grasp the essence of ethical and religious thought and language will not be achieved by metaphysical theories expounded from such a point of view, but by focusing on our everyday forms of expression.

The aim of this paper is to draw attention to a conflict between two popular views about time: Arthur Prior’s proposal for treating tense on the model of modal logic, and the ‘Platonic’ thesis that some objects (God, forms, universals, or numbers) exist eternally.1 I will argue that anyone who accepts the former ought to reject the latter.

We show how to extract effective bounds Φ for $\bigwedge u^1 \bigwedge v \leq_\gamma tu \bigvee w^\eta G_0$ -sentences which depend on u only (i.e. $\bigwedge u \bigwedge v \leq_\gamma tu \bigvee w \leq_\eta \Phi uG_0$ ) from arithmetical proofs which use analytical assumptions of the form \begin{equation*}\tag{*}\bigwedge x^\delta\bigvee y \leq_\rho sx \bigwedge z^\tau F_0\end{equation*} (γ, δ, ρ, and τ are arbitrary finite types, η ≤ 2, G0 and F0 are quantifier-free, and s and t are closed terms). If τ (...) ≤ 2, (*) can be weakened to $\bigwedge x^\delta, z^\tau\bigvee y \leq_\rho sx \bigwedge \tilde{z} \leq_\tau z F_0$ . This is used to establish new conservation results about weak König's lemma. Applications to proofs in classical analysis, especially uniqueness proofs in approximation theory, will be given in subsequent papers. (shrink)

In this small book, Ulrich Steinvorth describes the reasons why analytic philosophy, which started as an anti-metaphysical project, has become a strong advocate of metaphysics, and why it must become synthetic, normative, and naturalistic. Steinvorth argues that self-regulation is the common property of all being, that we can talk of an increase or escalation of self-regulation in the evolution of being, and that self-regulation becomes self-determination in man. Considering objections to this view related to questions of free will, (...) consciousness, the naturalistic fallacy, and teleology, he draws on cybernetics, dual process theory, physical cosmology, and Leibniz’s idea of measuring the goodness of a world by the number of possibilities opened up by the world. To test his approach and show its political relevance, he applies it to political liberalism. (shrink)

Freiheit und Verantwortung sind die Schlusselworter einer Auffassung vom Menschen, die zurzeit heftig umstritten ist. Vor allem seitens der Neurowissenschaften ist die mit jenen Wortern verbundene Deutung menschlichen Handelns in die Kritik geraten. Die Diskussion ist im Kern jedoch nicht neu, sondern hat eine lange Geschichte, die schon bei den Griechen beginnt. Die zentralen Fragen dieser Kontroverse lauten: Sind wir frei, und wenn ja, in welchem Sinn? und: Sind wir verantwortlich, und wenn ja, in welchem Sinn? Pothasts Buch bietet eine (...) Analyse der Situation, in der wir uns bei der Wahl eigener Handlungen unvermeidlich finden, und leitet daraus ein Minimalverstandnis von Freiheit ab, das auch Bestand hat, wenn wir uns als determinierte Naturwesen verstehen. Ihm kann ein ebenso unbestreitbares Minimum von Verantwortlichkeit zugeordnet werden. Allerdings wird die seit der Antike immer wieder neu entfachte Kontroverse noch fur unabsehbare Zeit nicht zu einem einvernehmlichen Schluss kommen. Es sind menschliche Grundhaltungen von Selbstdeutung und Zusammenleben im Spiel, die sich in langen Zeitraumen entwickelt haben. Dieses komplexe Dispositionsgefuge weist in sich schroff gegenlaufige Tendenzen auf, die weit uber die fur uns sichtbare Zukunft hinaus dazu fuhren werden, dass die alte Debatte periodisch neu eroffnet wird - z.B. wenn (wieder einmal) neues Wissen verfugbar wird oder (wieder einmal) neue Vorstellungen von Menschsein und Zusammenleben sich geltend machen. (shrink)

Since the Kierkegaard Studies Monograph Series (KSMS) was first published in 1997, it has served as the authoritative book series in the field. Starting from 2011 the Kierkegaard Studies Monograph Series will intensify the peer-review process with a new editorial and advisory board. KSMS is published on behalf of the S ren Kierkegaard Research Centre at the University of Copenhagen. KSMS publishes outstanding monographs in all fields of Kierkegaard research. This includes Ph.D. dissertations, Habilitation theses, conference proceedings and single (...) author works by senior scholars. The goal of KSMS is to advance Kierkegaard studies by encouraging top-level scholarship in the field. The editorial and advisory boards are deeply committed to creating a genuinely international forum for publication which integrates the many different traditions of Kierkegaard studies and brings them into a constructive and fruitful dialogue. To this end the series publishes monographs in English and German. Potential authors should consult the Submission guidelines. All submissions will be blindly refereed by established scholars in the field. Only high-quality manuscripts will be accepted for publication. Potential authors should be prepared to make changes to their texts based on the comments received by the referees. (shrink)

ArgumentWhen Copernicus pointed out that the apparent movement of the sun was in fact the effect of the rotation of the earth, he explained his view by referring to a passage in Virgil's Aeneid. Thus he established the link between science and literature. This topic recurred frequently in both science and literature whenever the question of the relativity of motion arose. In this article, I will focus above all on two authors who took up this question: Ernst Mach and (...) Hugo von Hofmannsthal. Moreover I will try to show the different roles of scientific and literary prose in the works of Mach and in Hofmannsthal's Das Glück am Weg. (shrink)

Behavioral economics focuses mainly on how limitations of the human cognitive apparatus, risk attitudes, and human sociality affect decision making. The former two lead to deviations from rationality standards, the latter to deviations from rational self-interest. Some of these research interests are also shared by evolutionary psychology which, however, explains the observed deviations by features of the human genetic endowment conjectured to have evolved under fierce selection pressure in early human phylogeny. Important as the decision-making theoretical perspective of the two (...) disciplines is, it will be claimed to be too narrow to fully account for what an evolutionary approach has to say about economic behavior. This is particularly true regarding the questions of what choices are made and what causes them, i.e., the motivational aspects of behavior. In the language of economics this points to the agents’ preferences. This article discusses how preferences relate to the human genetic endowment, how they can change over time, and what conclusions have to be drawn from extending the analysis to the motivational side. (shrink)

The article critically analyses the gaps and the analytical potential in Jürgen Habermas’s The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere concerning corporate discourses and debates. It is shown that Habermas only analyses the field of work in abstract terms, neglecting in particular corporate public spheres. In contrast, corporate public spheres are developed as an analytical concept, expressed by companies in the form of institutionalized co-determination, situationally granted opportunities for participation and self-willed public spheres of workers. These three fields are discussed (...) using empirical examples. It is shown that corporate public spheres are eroded by precarization and instrumentalized by management. Furthermore, digitalization is working towards a comprehensive algorithmic control of corporate public spheres by companies, but also towards new autonomous communication networks that establish proletarian public spheres, so that both refeudalization and revitalization of corporate public spheres can be observed. (shrink)

Linguistics, Anthropology and Philosophy in the French Enlightenment treats the development of linguistic thought from Descartes to Degerando as both a part of and a determining factor in the emergence of modern consciousness. Through his careful analyses of works by the most influential thinkers of the time, author Ulrich Ricken demonstrates that the central significance of language in the philosophy of the enlightenment is how it reflected and acted upon contemporary understanding of humanity as a whole. Although primarily focused (...) on French thought between 1650 and 1800, the author discusses contemporary developments in England, Germany and Italy and covers an unusually broad range of writers and ideas, including Leibniz, Wolff, Herder and Humboldt. This study places the history of language philosophy within the broader context of the history of ideas, aesthetics and historical anthropology and will be of interest to scholars working in these disciplines. (shrink)

What does it mean to do philosophy historically, and when does the legend of philosophy begin? When Hegel tried to give a logical explanation of philosophy's history, was he doing the same thing as Eduard Zeller in his account of Creek thought, or Kuno Fischer in his narrative of modern philosophy? l do not believe so, and I shall sugges t in the following that we should carefully differentiate between the different activities commonly referred to as the history of philosophy. (...) I will point out the enormous productivity of the 19th century in terms of printed books devoted to the history of philosophy. I will also point to the context in which these were produced and used rather than examining individual works or authors. There is an entirely new context in the 19th century, which is the study of philosophy. A proper culture developed around the historical interest in philosophy, and it is this culture I want to sketch here. (shrink)

With the rigorous development of modal logic in the first half of the twentieth century, it became custom amongst philosophers to characterize different views about necessity and possibility in terms of rival axiomatic systems for the modal operators ‘ ’ (‘possibly’) and ‘ ’ (‘necessarily’). From the late 1950s onwards, Arthur Prior began to argue that temporal distinctions ought to be given a similar treatment, in terms of axiomatic systems for sentential tense operators, such as ‘P’ (‘it was the case (...) that’) and ‘F’ (‘it will be the case that’).1 My aim here is to give a brief survey of the extent to which time can be treated on the model of modality. I shall not try to address the further question of whether such ‘modal’ accounts of time are to be preferred over ‘spatial’ accounts that treat times more like places. (shrink)

Pragmatism is ever more popular amongst those who study international relations. Its emphasis on practice is generally acknowledged as a defining characteristic. There is, however, a general tension within pragmatist thought concerning practice, for pragmatism may emphasize the theorizing of practice. It is, then, distinguished from other theories in International Relations (IR) such as neo-realism or constructivism as a contender in their midst. We delineate a pragmatist theory of IR in the first part of this article, but insist on going (...) beyond merely establishing the next paradigm, for pragmatism may also emphasize the practice of theorizing. Theories are, then, considered different tools useful for dealing with the social world. This will be corroborated in the second part by a close reading of William James. Finally, we submit that instead of a paradigm war, a metaphor such as that of the Papini hotel is needed in IR — a metaphor that accounts for theory competition without neglecting the limitations set by the practice of theorizing itself. (shrink)

Deontic logicians try to fix the logically relevant aspects of the meanings of normative expressions and to reveal the logical relations between the corresponding sentences. From the very beginning, however, logicians and philosophers engaged in work on axiomatic Systems of deontic logic have faced so called problem of the "paradoxes of deontic logic". What is covered by this label are deontic formulae which are provable in logic harmless-looking axiomatic systems, but which seem to be clearly false on certain natural interpretations (...) providing them with that content. The problem of these paradoxes has been intensively discussed within the last decades. In the course of the debate, even quite fundamental assumptions of deontic logic have been newly questioned - for it seemed possible that involvement in paradoxes flows already from these very assumptions. In this work a new kind of formal semantics for a deontic language is developed. It embodies semantical considerations inspired by R.M. Hare's analyses of the meanings of normative expressions, a point of special importance being the representation within semantics of Hare's central concept of the universalizability of normative propositions. Those deontic formulae typically suspected of paradoxicality are shown by the author to be non-theorems of the logic thereby generated. Some of the customary formal semantics for deontic logic prove to be special cases of the semantics put forward, so that the author is in a position to explain the coming about of several typically paradoxical formulae: they become formal semantically valid just in case certain restrictions are introduced into the new semantic framework established. The book ends with the result that the assumptions hitherto taken as basic for deontic logic may be retained, at least as far as the paradoxes are concerned. For it has been shown that one can avoid the paradoxes without dropping those assumptions by use of a more intricate kind of formal semantics. The book will serve as an introduction to central questions of deontic logic, which, unsettled as they were, led to a rather sceptic attitude towards the prospects of this discipline. Nortmann offers a new semantics to overcome the problems. (shrink)

The aim of the paper is this: Instead of presenting a provisional and necessarily insufficient characterization of what mathematical physics is, I will ask the reader to take it just as that, what he or she thinks or believes it is, yet to be prepared to revise his opinion in the light of what I am going to tell. Because this is precisely, what I intend to do. I will challenge some of the received or standard views about (...) mathematical physics and replace them by a more sophisticated picture, which takes into account the methodological and philosophical roots of mathematical physics in Göttingen. (shrink)

Perhaps the gist of Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer's grand theory of modernity, Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944), can be summed up as follows: there is no progress without regression. The chapter most forcefully informed by their experiences in Southern California is called “The Culture Industry,” and it “shows the regression of enlightenment to ideology which is graphically expressed in film and radio.”1 This article seeks to contribute a fuller understanding of the term “regression” by placing it in the biographical context (...) of Adorno's friendship with film director and fellow Los Angelino, Fritz Lang. I will discuss three interrelated aspects: “regression”…. (shrink)

Hermeneutics can be understood on the one hand as the art of interpretation, and on the other hand as a medium for dealing with the past, for conveying events, contexts or even writings in new ways of speaking for new recipients. The interpretation of writings, however, places special demands on hermeneutics: it does not take place in a sterile vacuum, but is rather embedded in a social and cultural context that shapes the interpretation or mediation and is an expression of (...) a time, a fashion or a specific requirement of modernity. The question therefore arises as to what role reason and experience, science and/or social ideas, tradition(s) and/or community play in interpretation. Using Thomas More's masterpiece Utopia as an example, various resulting interpretative approaches to a concrete writing will be presented. Through the hermeneutic design of a historical horizon in relation to Thomas More's time as well as through the development of a historical awareness of the work, the possibility of an understanding of this world-famous, still controversial writing as well as the efficiency of Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics will become recognisable. (shrink)

Das Natur/geist-verhältnis zeigt sich darin, dass ein Naturgegenstand immer in einem Verhältnis zu einem Subjekt steht und ein Subjekt immer in Relation zu einem Gegenstand. Fichtes Idee war, die Philosophie auf die Struktur des absoluten Wissens aufzubauen. Naturphilosophie ist im absoluten Wissen spezielles Wissen. Das Natur/geist-verhältnis in Form der beiden Vorstellungsarten Sinnlichkeit und Verstand zwingt uns, sie als eigenständige kognitive Vermögen anzusehen. Das menschliche Subjekt ist dialektisch und hat einen Drang zum Unbedingten, zur Weltlosigkeit und die Tendenz zur Weltbindung. Die (...) unauflösbare Dialektik von Natur und Geist steckt strukturell in der Subjektivität; das Verhältnis von Natur und Geist folgt aus dem »Ur-teilen« der Subjektivität. Kant beginnt seine Kritik, indem er die Erkenntnisfähigkeit der Vernunft des menschlichen Geistes selbst kritisiert; sein Ausgangspunkt war die alte Metaphysik der Subjektivität. Die Grundidee in Ansehung des subjektiven Vernunftvermögens bestand in der Einteilung in theoretische - und praktische Philosophie oder kausales und freiheitliches Sein. Wie ist das Verhältnis von Wahrnehmung zur Selbstwahrnehmung zu denken? Klar ist, dass von der Erkenntnis, von dem was ist, kein Weg zu dem führt, was sein soll; dieser Weg ist durch den Hiatus irrationalis versperrt. Die transzendentale Naturlehre Fichtes ist von Kant prinzipiell vorgezeichnet, jedem Sein geht ein Denken der Subjektivität voraus, gewissermaßen ein überfaktisches Wissen. Der transzendentale Realitätsbegriff von Kant und Fichte geht dem Streit zwischen der Empirie und der Ratio aus dem Wege, denn die Transzendentalphilosophie zeichnet sich durch eine raffinierte Ausgeglichenheit in dem Sinne aus, dass sie das Subjekt zum Schöpfer seines eigenen Wissens- und Wahrnehmungsbereichs macht, ohne die Eigenständigkeit einer objektiven Welt zu verleugnen. Der transzendentale Idealismus führt uns zu einem widerspruchslosen Wirklichkeitsverständnis, trotz des natürlichen Hangs zum Dogmatismus. Mit der Setzung der gegebenen Gegenstände in Erscheinungen und Dinge an sich entfällt die Annahme einer objektiven Außenwelt. Einstein konnte sich dieser Auffassung nie anschließen, für ihn gab es die gottgegebene objektive Welt mit ihren majestätischen Naturgesetzen. Es war Fichte, der behauptete, dass die Realität der Außenwelt nicht nur durch Sinnlichkeit begriffen werden kann, sondern primär durch Sittlichkeit; konstitutive sittliche Selbsterkenntnis und nicht regulative theoretische Naturerkenntnis war für Fichte maßgebend. Transzendentalphilosophie ist die Verschmelzung von Sein und Bewusstsein zu Selbstbewusstsein, oder mit anderen Worten: Sein und Erkennen ist immer nur in Relation zur begleitenden Subjektivität zu denken. Naturphilosophie und Subjektphilosophie sind eigentlich komplementär, verweisen aber gerade deshalb auf ein Ganzes. Die Transzendentalphilosophie kommt diesem Ganzen nahe; sie ist eine subjektive Theorie über das Denken und zeigt uns kritisch die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen objektiver Erfahrungserkenntnis. Sie liefert uns eine Ontologie für die von uns gedachte Welt auf Grund unserer beiden Erkenntnisstämme Sinnlichkeit und Verstand. Die transzendentalen Bestimmungen und Strukturen sind, weil sie vor aller Erfahrung liegen, für jede denkbare Physik gültig und kanonisch. Theorien für Alles, Weltformeln oder Fragen nach dem Ursprung von Allem werden automatisch »zermalmt«. Wirklichkeit ist die faktische Vermittlung von Subjekt und Objekt; Wirklichkeit ist demnach gegenstandslos, ist bloß eine Relation und diese ist das Natur/geist-verhältnis. Naturphilosophie ist kritische Erkenntnistheorie in Ansehung der Naturwissenschaften vom Standpunkt der Transzendentalphilosophie und die objektiven Gegenstände sind Objekte unserer Vorstellungen. Die Vernunftdichotomie des theoretischen und moralischen Gebrauchs des Denkens, von Fichte absolut als eine tätige Einheit gedacht, hat ihren rätselhaften Ort in der Subjektivität. Ich will hier die Antinomie unserer theoretischen Vernunfthandlungen, die aus dem Hin und Her von Weltbindung und Weltlosigkeit, von Endlichkeit und Unendlichkeit zu meinem Thema machen Die erkenntnistheoretischen Probleme in der Physik sind philosophischer Natur; durch Veränderungen der Theorien lassen sie sich nicht zum Verschwinden bringen. Oft werden Vorstellungen hypostasiert und zu Erfahrungsgegenständen gemacht, was wir z. B. in der Quantenphysik deutlich sehen. Bei der Charakterisierung eines Quantenobjekts haben wir je nach Versuchsbedingungen eine Wellenvorstellung oder eine Teilchenvorstellung, d. h. zwei verschiedene Wahrnehmungen vorliegen. Die Frage nach einer eindeutigen Realität im Kontext der Quantenphysik ist sinnlos, denn es ist bloß ein Streit subjektiver Gesetze, der durch die Erfahrung, d. h. durch eine Messung entschieden wird. Kants Doktrin in der Kritik weist uns darauf hin, dass das Denken auf die Erfahrung zu verweisen hat, und damit die Welt erzeugt im Sinne der Revolution der Denkart. Die Wissenschaften haben es immer mit gegebenen Gegenständen zu tun, während es Aufgabe der Philosophie ist, das Wissen und dessen Herkunft selbst wissenschaftlich zu untersuchen. Fichte hat trotz der Favorisierung des absoluten Subjekts die Bedeutung der Erfahrung als Widerstand und Anstoß für das Subjekt betont; nach ihm ist das Schweben zwischen Empirie und Ratio oder Kausalität und Freiheit eine wesentliche Bestimmung der Subjektivität. In der Erfahrung ist dieses Schweben durch die produktive und intentionale Einbildungskraft gegeben, diese vermittelt zwischen den Sinnen und Begriffen und produziert Bedeutung. Das Problem besteht nun darin, dass sich das Denken wegen unseres komplementären Wesens verwickelt und sich dabei selbst in einem Streit subjektiver Gesetze verliert, woraus Aporien und Paradoxien entstehen - wie wir sie nicht nur bei der Deutung der Natur haben. Diesen Widerstreit der Subjektivität zu erhellen, muss Aufgabe einer Philosophie der Subjektivität sein. Kant und Fichte haben uns hier einen Weg gewiesen. (shrink)

Das Natur/geist-verhältnis zeigt sich darin, dass ein Naturgegenstand immer in einem Verhältnis zu einem Subjekt steht und ein Subjekt immer in Relation zu einem Gegenstand. Fichtes Idee war, die Philosophie auf die Struktur des absoluten Wissens aufzubauen. Naturphilosophie ist im absoluten Wissen spezielles Wissen. Das Natur/geist-verhältnis in Form der beiden Vorstellungsarten Sinnlichkeit und Verstand zwingt uns, sie als eigenständige kognitive Vermögen anzusehen. Das menschliche Subjekt ist dialektisch und hat einen Drang zum Unbedingten, zur Weltlosigkeit und die Tendenz zur Weltbindung. Die (...) unauflösbare Dialektik von Natur und Geist steckt strukturell in der Subjektivität; das Verhältnis von Natur und Geist folgt aus dem »Ur-teilen« der Subjektivität. Kant beginnt seine Kritik, indem er die Erkenntnisfähigkeit der Vernunft des menschlichen Geistes selbst kritisiert; sein Ausgangspunkt war die alte Metaphysik der Subjektivität. Die Grundidee in Ansehung des subjektiven Vernunftvermögens bestand in der Einteilung in theoretische - und praktische Philosophie oder kausales und freiheitliches Sein. Wie ist das Verhältnis von Wahrnehmung zur Selbstwahrnehmung zu denken? Klar ist, dass von der Erkenntnis, von dem was ist, kein Weg zu dem führt, was sein soll; dieser Weg ist durch den Hiatus irrationalis versperrt. Die transzendentale Naturlehre Fichtes ist von Kant prinzipiell vorgezeichnet, jedem Sein geht ein Denken der Subjektivität voraus, gewissermaßen ein überfaktisches Wissen. Der transzendentale Realitätsbegriff von Kant und Fichte geht dem Streit zwischen der Empirie und der Ratio aus dem Wege, denn die Transzendentalphilosophie zeichnet sich durch eine raffinierte Ausgeglichenheit in dem Sinne aus, dass sie das Subjekt zum Schöpfer seines eigenen Wissens- und Wahrnehmungsbereichs macht, ohne die Eigenständigkeit einer objektiven Welt zu verleugnen. Der transzendentale Idealismus führt uns zu einem widerspruchslosen Wirklichkeitsverständnis, trotz des natürlichen Hangs zum Dogmatismus. Mit der Setzung der gegebenen Gegenstände in Erscheinungen und Dinge an sich entfällt die Annahme einer objektiven Außenwelt. Einstein konnte sich dieser Auffassung nie anschließen, für ihn gab es die gottgegebene objektive Welt mit ihren majestätischen Naturgesetzen. Es war Fichte, der behauptete, dass die Realität der Außenwelt nicht nur durch Sinnlichkeit begriffen werden kann, sondern primär durch Sittlichkeit; konstitutive sittliche Selbsterkenntnis und nicht regulative theoretische Naturerkenntnis war für Fichte maßgebend. Transzendentalphilosophie ist die Verschmelzung von Sein und Bewusstsein zu Selbstbewusstsein, oder mit anderen Worten: Sein und Erkennen ist immer nur in Relation zur begleitenden Subjektivität zu denken. Naturphilosophie und Subjektphilosophie sind eigentlich komplementär, verweisen aber gerade deshalb auf ein Ganzes. Die Transzendentalphilosophie kommt diesem Ganzen nahe; sie ist eine subjektive Theorie über das Denken und zeigt uns kritisch die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen objektiver Erfahrungserkenntnis. Sie liefert uns eine Ontologie für die von uns gedachte Welt auf Grund unserer beiden Erkenntnisstämme Sinnlichkeit und Verstand. Die transzendentalen Bestimmungen und Strukturen sind, weil sie vor aller Erfahrung liegen, für jede denkbare Physik gültig und kanonisch. Theorien für Alles, Weltformeln oder Fragen nach dem Ursprung von Allem werden automatisch »zermalmt«. Wirklichkeit ist die faktische Vermittlung von Subjekt und Objekt; Wirklichkeit ist demnach gegenstandslos, ist bloß eine Relation und diese ist das Natur/geist-verhältnis. Naturphilosophie ist kritische Erkenntnistheorie in Ansehung der Naturwissenschaften vom Standpunkt der Transzendentalphilosophie und die objektiven Gegenstände sind Objekte unserer Vorstellungen. Die Vernunftdichotomie des theoretischen und moralischen Gebrauchs des Denkens, von Fichte absolut als eine tätige Einheit gedacht, hat ihren rätselhaften Ort in der Subjektivität. Ich will hier die Antinomie unserer theoretischen Vernunfthandlungen, die aus dem Hin und Her von Weltbindung und Weltlosigkeit, von Endlichkeit und Unendlichkeit zu meinem Thema machen Die erkenntnistheoretischen Probleme in der Physik sind philosophischer Natur; durch Veränderungen der Theorien lassen sie sich nicht zum Verschwinden bringen. Oft werden Vorstellungen hypostasiert und zu Erfahrungsgegenständen gemacht, was wir z. B. in der Quantenphysik deutlich sehen. Bei der Charakterisierung eines Quantenobjekts haben wir je nach Versuchsbedingungen eine Wellenvorstellung oder eine Teilchenvorstellung, d. h. zwei verschiedene Wahrnehmungen vorliegen. Die Frage nach einer eindeutigen Realität im Kontext der Quantenphysik ist sinnlos, denn es ist bloß ein Streit subjektiver Gesetze, der durch die Erfahrung, d. h. durch eine Messung entschieden wird. Kants Doktrin in der Kritik weist uns darauf hin, dass das Denken auf die Erfahrung zu verweisen hat, und damit die Welt erzeugt im Sinne der Revolution der Denkart. Die Wissenschaften haben es immer mit gegebenen Gegenständen zu tun, während es Aufgabe der Philosophie ist, das Wissen und dessen Herkunft selbst wissenschaftlich zu untersuchen. Fichte hat trotz der Favorisierung des absoluten Subjekts die Bedeutung der Erfahrung als Widerstand und Anstoß für das Subjekt betont; nach ihm ist das Schweben zwischen Empirie und Ratio oder Kausalität und Freiheit eine wesentliche Bestimmung der Subjektivität. In der Erfahrung ist dieses Schweben durch die produktive und intentionale Einbildungskraft gegeben, diese vermittelt zwischen den Sinnen und Begriffen und produziert Bedeutung. Das Problem besteht nun darin, dass sich das Denken wegen unseres komplementären Wesens verwickelt und sich dabei selbst in einem Streit subjektiver Gesetze verliert, woraus Aporien und Paradoxien entstehen - wie wir sie nicht nur bei der Deutung der Natur haben. Diesen Widerstreit der Subjektivität zu erhellen, muss Aufgabe einer Philosophie der Subjektivität sein. Kant und Fichte haben uns hier einen Weg gewiesen. (shrink)

Immer noch wird in der Wissenschaftsphilosophie der Sozialwissenschaften der Dualismus zwischen Natur- und Sozialwissenschaften diskutiert. Diese Analyse will das Problem als fiktiv erweisen. Zu diesem Zweck werden zunächst intuitiv plausible Argumente gegen eine Trennung vorgebracht, die vor allem auf die "neuen" diachronen Entwicklungen in den Naturwissenschaften abheben. Damit wird die These der strukturellen Gleichheit von Natur- und Sozialwissenschaften vorbereitet. Die These selbst wird mittels des formalen Instrumentariums des strukturalistischen Theorienkonzepts von Stegmüller/Sneed belegt. Dieses Konzept erweist die strukturelle Gleichheit aller (...) Wissenschaften, die sich auf die Realität beziehen. Von daher kann der Dualismus von Natur- und Sozialwissenschaften nicht länger aufrecht erhalten werden. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:The Suffering of Economic Injustice:A Christian PerspectiveUlrich DuchrowTogether we are facing a global kairos of humanity because these years are decisive for whether our civilization will irreversibly continue to produce death or whether we find a way out toward a life-enhancing new culture. So let me try to make a humble contribution to our common search for liberation from suffering toward life through justice.suffering caused by economic injustice (...) in the axial age and in the capitalist civilization of modernityWe do not need to spend much time on describing the sufferings caused by economic injustice. They cry to high heaven every day. Jean Ziegler, the former UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, speaks of more than 60 million people dying of hunger and its consequences every year, especially children, although there is more than enough to feed them. That is an annual World War II against the poor. He continues to say: “A child that dies of hunger is murdered.” He calls this a daily crime against humanity.1 Others call it structural genocide.2 All these victims are human beings with a human face, according to biblical tradition created in the image of God. So we are talking about murdering living images of God, about blasphemy.Also, the blue planet Earth’s suffering is growing dramatically. The extinction of species is accelerating, desertification is expanding, the poisoning of water and soil is increasing, and climate change is producing irreversible effects like lifting the sea level, devouring islands in the Pacific and growing parts of Bangladesh, creating weather disasters everywhere, and possibly increasing temperature in parts of Africa by ten degrees. We all know this, but so far we have not been able to make the necessary changes in global economics and politics to stop or at least slow it.Often forgotten are the psychological and spiritual sufferings and diseases of a growing number of people. In India an average of more than fifty farmers, driven into debt beyond their means, commit suicide daily out of despair.3 Workers suffer increasing stress and anxiety, and middle-class people fall into depression, projected to be the second most common illness in 2020, according the World Health Organization. So what are the roots of all of this? [End Page 27]My thesis is that what we are experiencing now started nearly three thousand years ago within what is called the Axial Age, beginning in the eighth century bce, in the whole of Eurasia from Greece to China. At that time a new economy started to appear in daily life, built on money and private property. It had tremendous social as well as psychological and spiritual effects. To analyze what happened then helps us understand what is happening today. Looking at the responses to this development by the different faiths and philosophies in Israel/Judah, India, China, and Greece may also help us to better understand the tasks and possibilities of engaged Buddhists and liberation theologians in our age.The philosopher Karl Jaspers coined the term “Axial Age.”4 According to him, the experience of violent crises between 800 and 200 bce might have prompted the parallel efforts of the prophets, the Buddha, Confucius, Daoism, and Greek philosophy to find new foundations for living together. He characterized the new approach as intellectual and spiritual (geistig), looking only marginally at the economic and political context. Recently Karen Armstrong and, based on her findings, Jeremy Rifkin took up this theory, looking particularly at war and violence as causes for the responses within the different cultures.5 Also José María Vigil, who is present here, has just published a chapter in his book on Theology of Axiality and Axial Theology.6 As far as the sociohistoric context of the Axial Age is concerned my thesis comes nearest to what David Graeber has worked out in his book Debt: The First 5,000 Years,7 although he is not very interested in the religious responses. Combining his insights with my own research,8 let me summarize how the new economy affects ancient societies.Money as unit of account was used in the palaces and temples of Mesopotamia as early... (shrink)

Part of the scientific enterprise is to measure the material world and to explain its dynamics by means of models. However, not only is measurability of the world limited, analyzability of models is so, too. Most often, computer simulations offer a way out of this epistemic bottleneck. They instantiate the model and may help to analyze it. In relation to the material world a simulation may be regarded as a kind of a “non-material scale model”. Like any other scale model, (...) it does not per se give any scientific explanation but is first in itself an object of scientific enquiry, a world. Since this world is numerical, it is a priori measurable. Its role in scientific explanation will be discussed. (shrink)

occurs first. The biological debate is conducted largely on a theoretical level. In this paper, I undertake to locate
the reason for the difference in temporal ordering. The question is whether the difference depends on alternative
interpretations of empirical data, on differing views about evolutionary mechanisms, or on different conceptual
frameworks. It will turn out that the latter is the case and that discerning two different notions of novelty solves
the apparent contradiction. Both concepts may apply to different cases in evolution. To settle (...) the dispute by
judging whether any of both concepts is empty or not has to be recommitted to science. (shrink)

The introduction of computer-based information systems to be used by farmers, as in many other fields, is preceded mostly by great expectations. Some persons even tend to think that eventually the computer might take over farm management. This article tries to make an assessment of the validity of such expectations. Based upon a study among Swedish farmers, it examines the nature of farmers' decision-making. The latter is based upon an adaptive rationality, as opposed to the normative models of formal rationality (...) used by scientists. Essential to this rationality are coordination skills: the ability of farmers to arrange the many interacting factors important to the totality of a farm in a satisfactory way. What the farmer needs in this complex situation is personal communication and tacit knowledge, knowledge that cannot be reduced to facts and rules. Consequently computer-based information systems can be useful tools only in some aspects of farm management, but they will never replace farmer's decision-making. To understand the possibilities of the computer as a tool in farm management, a distinction between interpretation skills and application skills is necessary. (shrink)

“Anchoring” is a tactic used to manipulate negotiation outcomes. It exploits the fact that people base their estimates of unknown quantities on initial values. If they are given these initial values, their estimations are influened by them. We will address whether there is a rational justification for people to be manipulated by anchoring. We will also look at how to recognize in a negotiation situation whether the anchor effect is being used against you, how to use the anchor (...) effect to your benefit, or at least how to defuse it if it is being used against you. (shrink)

This article discusses a recent ruling by the German Federal Court concerning medical professional liability due to potentially unlawful clinically assisted nutrition and hydration at the end of life. This case raises important ethical and legal questions regarding a third person’s right to judge the value of another person’s life and the concept of ‘wrongful life’. In our brief report, we discuss the concepts of the ‘value of life’ and wrongful life, which were evoked by the court, and how these (...) concepts apply to the present case. We examine whether and to what extent value-of-life judgements can be avoided in medical decision-making. The wrongful-life concept is crucial to the understanding of this case. It deals with the question whether life, even when suffering is involved, could ever be worse than death. The effects of this ruling on medical and legal practice in Germany are to be seen. It seems likely that it will discourage claims for compensation following life-sustaining treatment. However, it is unclear to what extent physicians’ decisions will be affected, especially those concerning withdrawal of CANH. We conclude that there is a risk that LST may come to be seen as the ‘safe’ option for the physician, and hence, as always appropriate. (shrink)

The external appearance of a person is an important predictor for his or her social success. This finding has been verified by numerous mostly social psychological oriented empirical studies on physical attractiveness for many phases and areas of life. At the same time, sociological research on social inequality has hardly paid any attention to the social relevance of physical attractiveness. In order to begin to dose this gap, the article provides insight into attractiveness research results and highlights the importance of (...) further research into the impact of attractiveness on causing social inequality. We will first give an overview of the areas of life in which the efficacy of physical attractiveness has already been demonstrated. Then we will discuss the mechanisms through which the external appearance of a person develops its effect, until finally, we will explain how physical attractiveness can be measured. (shrink)

Inexact limits. On the heap-paradox, Darwinism and recursive grammar. The heap-paradox can be reinforced by a combination with the basic idea of Achilles. The logical pattern of the reinforced heap-paradox will be analysed in a new manner by distinguishing between limited and unlimited transitivity. This analysis makes explicit the constructive character of the paradox. Finally it is shown that the logical pattern of the heap-paradox is applied in popular presentations of Darwinism, in the debate about abortion and in the (...) foundation of recursive theories of grammar. (shrink)

Surveys ofpatients show that in crisis situations decisions about their life are primarily left to physicians and relatives. Only few actually have drawn or wish to draw up a living will, and that the trust in physicians and relatives is rnuch more irnportant to thern than any autonomaus self-deterrnination about their life and the type of their treatrnent. So the author points out that a renaissance of an ethics of care is needed, which places the well-being of the ill (...) and dying at the centre of ethical considerations and which constantly attempts to clarify the proper and good goals at which medical treatment and medical care should aim. Such ethics of care is based on relations of trust between the physician and patient which is not possible to establish without confidence-building talks and acquisition and habitualisation of medical and care virtues such as sympathy, goodwill, recognition of limitations of their own abilities, honesty and others. Just plain specialised information about the diagnosis and prognosis, which leaves the »autonomous enlightened« patients alone with their decision is not a sufficient basis for an ethics of care. (shrink)

Face perception and emotion categorization are widely investigated under laboratory conditions that are devoid of real social interaction. Using mobile eye-tracking glasses in a standardized diagnostic setting while applying the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, we had the opportunity to record gaze behavior of children and adolescents with and without Autism Spectrum Conditions during social interaction. The objective was to investigate differences in eye-gaze behavior between three groups of children and adolescents either with ASC or with unconfirmed diagnosis of ASC or (...) with neurotypical development during social interaction with an adult interviewer in a diagnostic standard situation using the ADOS-2. In a case control study, we used mobile eye-tracking glasses in an ecologically valid and highly standardized diagnostic interview to investigate suspected cases of ASC. After completion of the ASC diagnostic gold standard including the ADOS-2, the participants were assigned to two groups based on their diagnosis and compared with a matched group of neurotypically developed controls. The primary outcome measure is the percentage of total dwell times assessed for different areas of interest with regard to the face and body of a diagnostic interviewer and the surrounding space. Overall, 65 children and adolescents within an age range of 8.3–17.9 years were included in the study. The data revealed significant group differences, especially in the central-face area. Previous investigations under laboratory conditions gave preferential attention to the eye region during face perception to describe differences between ASC and NTD. In this study – using an ecologically valid setting within a standard diagnostic procedure – the results indicate that neurotypically developed controls seem to process faces and facial expressions in a holistic manner originating from the central-face region. Conversely, participants on the Autism Spectrum seem to avoid the central-face region and show unsystematic gaze behavior, not using the preferred landing position in the central-face region as the Archimedean point of face perception. This study uses a new approach, and it will be important to replicate these preliminary findings in future research. (shrink)

Within the standard structuralist approach, the theoretical description of a system by means of an empirical theory T is regarded as an extension process in which partial models are extended into models of T by supplementing suitable T-theoretical functions. Thereby, it is taken for granted that the base sets, on which these functions or relations are defined, can be assumed as given independently of the theory in question. My aim in this paper is to show that, in many cases, this (...) assumption is not justified. I will argue that this fact—which may be seen as a mere technical complication on first sight—turns out to have profound consequences for core concepts of the structuralist framework: First, the concept of intended applications has to be reconsidered. Second, the extension process has to be described in a more differentiated and complex way. Third, the theory-dependent determination of base sets has major implications concerning the defense mechanisms of empirical theories against conflicting observational data. (shrink)