Results for 'Extreme Poverty'

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  1.  80
    Extreme poverty and global responsibility.Bashshar Haydar - 2005 - Metaphilosophy 36 (1‐2):240-253.
    This essay addresses the questions of whether and how much responsibility for extreme poverty should be assigned to global and domestic institutional orders. The main focus is on whether the global order brings about the existing levels of extreme poverty or merely allows them. By examining Thomas Pogge's recent contribution on this topic, I argue that although he builds a plausible case for the claim that the global order brings about, and not merely fails to prevent, (...)
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  2.  21
    Extreme poverty first: An argument on the equitable distribution of the COVID‐19 vaccine in Peru.Carlos Augusto Yabar - 2023 - Developing World Bioethics 24 (2):97-101.
    Effective vaccines for COVID‐19 are already available to humankind. In Peru, 86 million doses were administered to cover the demand for 33 million Peruvian people. Hence, vaccination has been prioritized in groups: health personnel, subjects with pre‐existing health conditions and those over 65 years of age. However, given the social problems and the public health situation in Peru, this work defends that the priority of vaccination should be focused on the population living in extreme poverty. The method used (...)
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  3.  7
    From extreme poverty to vulnerability in COVID‐19 vaccine priority.Federico Germán Abal - 2023 - Developing World Bioethics 23 (3):201-202.
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  4.  37
    Multiculturalism, Extreme Poverty, and P4C.Maria Elena Madrid - 2008 - Proceedings of the Xxii World Congress of Philosophy 27:55-69.
    Most of the Latin American population, including in places like Mexico and Brazil, is becoming extremely poor, slipping in the last ten years from poverty to extreme poverty. Native communities are in this condition: to live only to survive, lacking any opportunity to improve or at least meet their basics needs of food and shelter. I practiced P4C in the multicultural community of Juchitán, Oaxaca, to find if P4C overcame the limitations of extreme poverty, respecting (...)
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  5. Extreme Poverty in a Wealthy World: What Justice Demands Today.Marcelo Alegre - 2007 - In Thomas Pogge (ed.), Freedom From Poverty as a Human Right: Who Owes What to the Very Poor? Co-Published with Unesco. Oxford University Press.
     
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  6. Effective Altruism and Extreme Poverty.Fırat Akova - 2020 - Dissertation, University of Warwick
    Effective altruism is a movement which aims to maximise good. Effective altruists are concerned with extreme poverty and many of them think that individuals have an obligation to donate to effective charities to alleviate extreme poverty. Their reasoning, which I will scrutinise, is as follows: -/- Premise 1. Extreme poverty is very bad. -/- Premise 2. If it is in our power to prevent something very bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything else morally (...)
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  7. Extreme poverty: The failure of negative duties of global justice.Hedviga Marcinkova - 2012 - Filozofia 67 (9):731-742.
     
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  8. Extreme Poverty, Property Rights, and Moral Obligation.Asmat Ara Islam - 2014 - Jagannath University Journal of Arts 4.
     
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  9.  6
    A Duty-Based Approach to Children’s Right to Freedom from Extreme Poverty.Stamatina Liosi - 2019 - In Nicolás Brando & Gottfried Schweiger (eds.), Philosophy and Child Poverty: Reflections on the Ethics and Politics of Poor Children and Their Families. Springer. pp. 271-285.
    In this chapter, I examine the grounds of the right of children to be free from extreme poverty, the content of this right, and who the duty-bearers are. In particular, I argue that the socioeconomic right of children to freedom from severe poverty: is grounded in the specific perfect moral duty of right to protect children from extreme poverty ; consists of the right to claim the omission of any act that restricts children’s freedom from (...)
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  10.  18
    The Last Mile: The Ethical Challenges of Extreme Poverty and Vulnerability in the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.Pedrajas Marta - 2017 - Veritas: Revista de Filosofía y Teología 37:79-96.
    Resumen Se analiza desde el punto de vista ético la acción internacional en desarrollo, a través del acuerdo de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas: la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible. Los desafíos éticos de la nueva agenda son numerosos, pero hay un compromiso ético de primer orden: no dejar a nadie atrás. Para ejercitar esta acción, el PNUD y otros organismos como el Banco Mundial o UNICEF están trabajando con enfoques multidimensionales. Se trata de cubrir lo que se (...)
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  11.  12
    Conceptual and empirical reflection provide more arguments for the centrality of extreme poverty in COVID‐19 vaccination: A reply to Abal and Zeledón‐Ramírez et al.Carlos Augusto Yabar - 2023 - Developing World Bioethics 23 (3):209-210.
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  12.  22
    Breaking the Wall: Emotions and Projective Agency Under Extreme Poverty[REVIEW]Pablo D. Fernández, Alberto Willi & Pablo Martin de Holan - 2019 - Business and Society 58 (5):919-962.
    In this inductive, exploratory study, we explore how emotions affect the agency of vulnerable persons and their engagement in social innovation to challenge oppressive institutional constraints. By presenting the in-depth case of a successful entrepreneur from a shantytown, we show how emotions affect the construction of a self that contributes to the reproduction of social order rather than change, and how effective interventions can break the cycle of poverty and hopelessness that is dominant among excluded people. We find that (...)
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  13.  17
    Navigating Between Extremes: Academics Helping to Eradicate Global Poverty.Roger C. Riddell - 2012 - Ethics and International Affairs 26 (2):217-243.
    This article discusses ways in which academics and concerned individuals committed to the faster eradication of extreme poverty might make a contribution. It argues that this discussion needs to be informed by examining the lessons of academics who have been working in the development field for many decades tell us about success and failures and possible ways forward. Following the introduction, section two attempts to draw out from the work of academics, researchers and policymakers in the “world of (...)
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  14.  18
    Poverty and Fundamental Rights: The Justification and Enforcement of Socio-Economic Rights.David Bilchitz - 2007 - Oxford University Press.
    This book addresses the pressing issue of severe poverty and inequality, and asks why is it that violations of socio-economic rights are treated with less urgency than violations of civil and political rights, such as the right to freedom of speech or to vote? It provides a sustained argument for placing renewed focus on socio-economic rights as a method of ensuring that governments address extreme poverty. It combines both theoretical and practical perspectives, political philosophy, and constitutional law (...)
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  15. Poverty, negative duties and the global institutional order.Magnus Reitberger - 2008 - Politics, Philosophy and Economics 7 (4):379-402.
    Do we violate human rights when we cooperate with and impose a global institutional order that engenders extreme poverty? Thomas Pogge argues that by shaping and enforcing the social conditions that foreseeably and avoidably cause global poverty we are violating the negative duty not to cooperate in the imposition of a coercive institutional order that avoidably leaves human rights unfulfilled. This article argues that Pogge's argument fails to distinguish between harms caused by the global institutions themselves and (...)
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  16. Poverty.Juha Räikkä - 2014 - In H. Ten Have & B. Gordijn (ed.), Handbook on Global Bioethics. pp. 785-798.
     
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  17.  53
    Violence, Poverty, and Disaster.Naomi Zack - 2012 - Radical Philosophy Review 15 (1):53-65.
    Disaster has a triple violence: the literal event; inequality in rescue efforts; deprivation and coercion prior to physical disaster. Globally, the poor are the most vulnerable in disaster, but there are different degrees of poverty. Although Chile suffered a far more severe earthquake than Haiti, in 2010, the developed infrastructure of Chile allowed for greater resilience. The extreme poverty of Haiti impeded the implementation of humanitarian assistance pledged in the billions. In New Orleans, the exiled poor left (...)
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  18.  12
    Poverty: A Philosophical Approach.Paulette Dieterlen (ed.) - 2005 - BRILL.
    In _Poverty: a philosophical approach_, the author studies various philosophical issues concerning poverty in the Program for Education, Health and Food (PROGRESA) that was in effect in Mexico, from 1997 to 2002, and shows how theoretical discussion is necessary to clarify some ideas concerning the application of a social policy. Poverty is one of the main problems concerning economics, political philosophy, and ethics. It is an ethical problem because of its relationship with self-esteem. Since poverty is intimately (...)
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  19.  37
    Poverty and development: global problems from an Indian perspective.B. K. Chaturvedi - 2019 - Journal of Global Ethics 15 (1):55-66.
    ABSTRACTThe concept of poverty is understood differently by people across the globe. Despite this conceptual limitation, higher economic growth in the last few decades in many countries has helped reduce extreme global poverty. The growth process has been supported by globalization. The number of global poor is, however, still quite large and more than the entire population of USA, UK, France and Russia. Their numbers have gone up by 100 million in Sub Sahara region in last three (...)
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  20.  17
    Just End Poverty Now: The Case for a Global Minimum Income.Thomas R. Wells - 2019 - Basic Income Studies 14 (2).
    Global GDP is more than 100 trillion dollars, yet 10 % of the world’s population still live in extreme poverty on less than $1.90 per day. No one should have to live like that: alleviating poverty is a minimal moral obligation implied by nearly every secular and religious moral system. Unfortunately, neither economic growth nor conventional international aid can be relied upon to fulfil this obligation. A global basic income programme that transferred $1 per day from the (...)
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  21.  12
    On poverty and wealth: study of reflections on poverty and wealth in the sermons of Saint Augustine.Ricardo Evangelista Brandão - 2024 - Griot 24 (1):1-15.
    Aurélio Agostinho, when he was consecrated bishop in Hippo, had contact with a community in a situation of extreme social inequality, and adding to his understanding of bidirectional love (to God and neighbor), translated into nonconformity with the suffering of others, in the function as a bishop he had the opportunity to fight with the weapons at his disposal for a less undignified life for the poorest. Therefore, the concept of poverty that appears between the lines of his (...)
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  22.  11
    Engaging Philosophically with Immaterial Poverties.Peter McCormick - 2020 - Eco-Ethica 9:127-151.
    This article focuses on the extremely poor, on those who, if they are to live decent lives, are most in need of assistance. Like those suffering today from extremely severe famine in Yemen and elsewhere, very many of those suffering from extreme poverty will die not only prematurely; probably they will die before the end of the year. They will die if, among many others, thoughtful and resourceful persons including some philosophers continue to fail to engage themselves to (...)
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  23.  18
    The end of poverty: Economic possibilities for our time (review).Shiela G. Rector - 2010 - Education and Culture 26 (2):87-89.
    Jeffrey Sachs, an economist with a passion and experienced global view, makes a compelling call to action to bring an end to extreme poverty worldwide by the year 2025. He makes a strong case that not only is this goal within our reach, but that Americans have a vested interest in seeing the rest of the world in a stable economic situation.Based on years of experience in impoverished countries and his work as the director of the Columbia Earth (...)
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  24. War and poverty.Kieran Oberman - 2019 - Philosophical Studies 176 (1):197-217.
    Because the poorest people tend to die from easily preventable diseases, addressing poverty is a relatively cheap way to save lives. War, by contrast, is extremely expensive. This article argues that, since states that wage war could alleviate poverty instead, poverty can render war unjust. Two just war theory conditions prove relevant: proportionality and last resort. Proportionality requires that war does not yield excessive costs in relation to the benefits. Standardly, just war theorists count only the direct (...)
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  25.  28
    The Poverty of Philosophy and the Philosophy of Poverty.Liu Hui-lin - 1979 - Contemporary Chinese Thought 11 (2):55-76.
    No apology, I imagine, is necessary for the appearance of this translation\nof Marx's "Misere de la Philosophic" On the contrary it is strange\nthat it should not have been published in England before, anu that\nthe translation of his monumental work, the "Capital," tardy as that\nwas, should have yet been made before that of a work which was originally\npublished some twenty years before "Capital" first appeared.\n\n\nIt may be that the translators and editors of the latter work were\nof opinion that in view of (...)
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  26.  4
    The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Poverty.Gottfried Schweiger & Clemens Sedmak (eds.) - 2023 - Routledge.
    The problem of poverty is global in scope and has devastating consequences for many essential aspects of life: health, education, political participation, autonomy, and psychological well-being. The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Poverty presents the current state of philosophical research on poverty in its breadth and depth. It features 39 chapters divided into five thematic sections: Concepts, theories and philosophical aspects of poverty research Poverty in the history of Western philosophy and philosophical traditions Poverty (...)
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  27.  6
    The Dynamics of Child Poverty in Industrialised Countries.Bruce Bradbury, Stephen P. Jenkins & John Micklewright (eds.) - 2001 - Cambridge University Press.
    A child poverty rate of ten percent could mean that every tenth child is always poor, or that all children are in poverty for one month in every ten. Knowing where reality lies between these extremes is vital to understanding the problem facing many countries of poverty among the young. This unique study goes beyond the standard analysis of child poverty based on poverty rates at one point in time and documents how much movement into (...)
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  28.  84
    Universal Law and Poverty Relief.Oliver Sensen - 2022 - Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 26 (2):177-190.
    In this article, I examine what Kant’s Formula of Universal Law requires of an individual agent in situations of great need, e.g.: if you can easily help a drowning child, or if you know of a famine situation in another country. I first explain why I do not simply apply the standard interpretation of how one can derive concrete duties from Kant’s Universal Law formulation of the Categorical Imperative. I then glean an alternative procedure from Kant’s texts and give the (...)
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  29.  17
    Living with the extreme demand.Teppo Eskelinen - 2013 - Etikk I Praksis - Nordic Journal of Applied Ethics 1 (1):73-87.
    Most of the ethical literature on extreme poverty suggests, that some, if not most, of the incomes of the residents of rich countries ought to be donated to the global poor. Yet complying with this ethical demand becomes increasingly more difficult as the changes in lifestyle in the (post)industrial north demand ever more consumption in order to obtain the necessities for survival in such societies. In this article, I will discuss Peter Singer's famous arguments for the ethical duty (...)
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  30.  15
    Microfranchising to Alleviate Poverty: An Innovation Network Perspective. [REVIEW]Laté Lawson-Lartego & Lars Mathiassen - 2020 - Journal of Business Ethics 171 (3):545-563.
    In 2015, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals set an ethical imperative: end extreme poverty and hunger by 2030. Microfranchising can contribute to this critical effort by offering nonprofit organizations and businesses an opportunity to rapidly scale entrepreneurship within Base of the Pyramid markets. However, while abundant literature exists on traditional franchising, we know little about how to leverage microfranchising in resource-scarce contexts to alleviate poverty. To address this gap, we report a longitudinal case study of a (...)
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  31.  9
    Social Capital and the Role of the State: Nurturing Collectives for Poverty Alleviation.Arvind Kumar Chaudhary - 2023 - Social Philosophy and Policy 40 (1):233-259.
    For eradication of acute poverty, it is vital to factor in the human experience of it. Building social capital and networks that nurture, empower, and consistently reinforce a new shared economic identity can provide rich socioeconomic dividends. For states tackling extreme poverty at scale, building and strengthening social capital are essential public goods investments.
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  32.  38
    The poverty of sustainability: An analysis of current positions. [REVIEW]Carolyn E. Sachs & Patricia L. Allen - 1992 - Agriculture and Human Values 9 (4):29-35.
    A short time ago the idea of sustainable agriculture was accepted only at the extreme margins of the U. S. agricultural systems. Although sustainability has now become a major theme of many U. S. agricultural groups, there remains much under-explored terrain in the meaning of sustainable agriculture. A thorough examination of who and what we want to sustain and how we can sustain them is critical if sustainable agriculture is to be a practical improvement over conventional agriculture. In order (...)
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  33.  28
    On the Poverty of Scientism.Murray Code - 1997 - Metaphilosophy 28 (1):102--22.
    If there is one rationality there must be a plurality of them. This conclusion follows, I argue, partly from the extreme and ineradicable vagueness of the fundamental concepts that every would‐be rational explanation must presuppose. Logicistic/scientistic assaults on this vagueness are doomed to fail partly because they are unable to acknowledge the imaginative dimension of rational thought. Being limited to the play of “outward appearances,” scientific investigations are also dependent on “inward imaginings” on their speculative side. The upshot is (...)
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  34.  18
    Guns or Food: On Prioritizing National Security over Global Poverty Relief.Francisco García-Gibson - 2018 - Global Justice : Theory Practice Rhetoric 10 (2).
    Political realists claim that international relations are in a state of anarchy, and therefore every state is allowed to disregard its moral duties towards other states and their inhabitants. Realists argue that complying with moral duties is simply too risky for a state’s national security. Political moralists convincingly show that realists exaggerate both the extent of international anarchy and the risks it poses to states who act morally. Yet moralists do not go far enough, since they do not question realism’s (...)
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  35.  27
    Guns or Food: On Prioritizing National Security over Global Poverty Relief.Francisco García-Gibson - 2017 - Global Justice: Theory Practice Rhetoric 10 (2).
    Political realists claim that international relations are in a state of anarchy, and therefore every state is allowed to disregard its moral duties towards other states and their inhabitants. Realists argue that complying with moral duties is simply too risky for a state’s national security. Political moralists convincingly show that realists exaggerate both the extent of international anarchy and the risks it poses to states who act morally. Yet moralists do not go far enough, since they do not question realism’s (...)
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  36.  4
    Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Poverty.Gottfried Schweiger & Clemens Sedmak (eds.) - 2023 - Routledge.
    The problem of poverty is global in scope and has devastating consequences for many essential aspects of life: health, education, political participation, autonomy, and psychological well-being. The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Poverty presents the current state of philosophical research on poverty in its breadth and depth. It features 39 chapters divided into five thematic sections: Concepts, theories, and philosophical aspects of poverty research Poverty in the history of Western philosophy and philosophical traditions Poverty (...)
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  37.  73
    A Kantian Argument against World Poverty.Merten Reglitz - 2016 - European Journal of Political Theory 18 (4): 489–507.
    Immanuel Kant is recognized as one of the first philosophers who wrote systematically about global justice and world peace. In the current debate on global justice he is mostly appealed to by critics of extensive duties of global justice. However, I show in this paper that an analysis of Kant’s late work on rights and justice provides ample resources for disagreeing with those who take Kant to call for only modest changes in global politics. Kant’s comments in the Doctrine of (...)
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  38.  21
    After the Millennium Development Goals. Remarks on the ethical assessment of global poverty reduction success.Teppo Eskelinen - 2018 - Etikk I Praksis - Nordic Journal of Applied Ethics 1:61-75.
    The Millennium Development Goals were effective from 2000 to 2015. Statistics show that most of the goals were met, and particularly success in the goal of reducing extreme poverty gained wide recognition. Despite the strong ethical language related to poverty reduction, there has been little analysis of the ethical significance of the MDG achievements. Since statistical and ethical definitions and representations of poverty never completely overlap, conclusions concerning ethical progress are not directly available from the statistics. (...)
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  39.  9
    On the Poverty of Scientism, or: The Ineluctable Roughness of Rationality.Murray Code - 1997 - Metaphilosophy 28 (1-2):102-122.
    If there is one rationality there must be a plurality of them. This conclusion follows, I argue, partly from the extreme and ineradicable vagueness of the fundamental concepts that every would‐be rational explanation must presuppose. Logicistic/scientistic assaults on this vagueness are doomed to fail partly because they are unable to acknowledge the imaginative dimension of rational thought. Being limited to the play of “outward appearances,” scientific investigations are also dependent on “inward imaginings” on their speculative side. The upshot is (...)
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  40.  5
    Assessing changes in food pantry access after extreme events.John P. Casellas Connors, Mastura Safayet, Nathanael Rosenheim & Maria Watson - 2023 - Agriculture and Human Values 40 (2):619-634.
    Food pantries play a growing role in supporting households facing or at risk of food insecurity in the United States. They also support emergency response and recovery following disasters and extreme weather events. Although food pantries are often placed in close proximity to communities with the highest rates of poverty and risk of food insecurity, access to these facilities can be disrupted during and after extreme events. Decreased access to food pantries following disasters can be particularly problematic (...)
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  41.  11
    Promoting Socially Responsible Business, Ethical Trade and Acceptable Labour Standards.David Lewis, Great Britain & Social Development Systems for Coordinated Poverty Eradication - 2000
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  42. Famine, Affluence, and Morality.Peter Singer - 1972 - Oxford University Press USA.
    In 1972, the young philosopher Peter Singer published "Famine, Affluence and Morality," which rapidly became one of the most widely discussed essays in applied ethics. Through this article, Singer presents his view that we have the same moral obligations to those far away as we do to those close to us. He argued that choosing not to send life-saving money to starving people on the other side of the earth is the moral equivalent of neglecting to save drowning children because (...)
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  43.  19
    The Right to Survival and Global Justice.Ángel Puyol - 2011 - Ideas Y Valores 60 (147):177–208.
    Extreme poverty and tremendous inequality are an evil of our times, but do they constitute injustice? The article discusses different types of global moral obligations and criticizes those that 1) reject obligations of justice in a global context, 2)systematically prioritize special obligations, and 3) reduce the main obligations ofglobal justice to negative duties. Without necessarily defending global egalitarianism, it is possible to justify the redistribution of wealth in the world on the basis of a wide interpretation of the (...)
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  44. Human rights and global health: A research program.Thomas W. Pogge - 2005 - Metaphilosophy 36 (1‐2):182-209.
    One-third of all human lives end in early death from poverty-related causes. Most of these premature deaths are avoidable through global institutional reforms that would eradicate extreme poverty. Many are also avoidable through global health-system reform that would make medical knowledge freely available as a global public good. The rules should be redesigned so that the development of any new drug is rewarded in proportion to its impact on the global disease burden (not through monopoly rents). This (...)
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  45. Complementarity analysis of the Priority Areas Development Program and the Priority Attention Areas Program in the National Crusade Against Hunger Program in indigenous municipalities in the State of Veracruz Mexico.Carlos Medel-Ramírez & Medel López Hilario - 2018 - Social Science Research Network:1-32.
    Mexico, with the commissioning of the "National Crusade Against Hunger Program" in 2013, aimed at serving the population that presents both extreme poverty and food deprivation. The article aims to analyze whether the criterion of the selection of the municipalities of the State of Veracruz incorporated in the National Crusade Against Hunger Program (PNCH) show complementarity with the efforts in the fight against poverty in the social expenditure strategy applied in the Priority Attention Zones Program (ZAP) and (...)
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  46. Global ethics: increasing our positive impact.Keith Horton - 2014 - Journal of Global Ethics 10 (3):304-311.
    Global ethics is no ordinary subject. It includes some of the most urgent and momentous issues the world faces, such as extreme poverty and climate change. Given this, any adequate review of that subject should, I suggest, ask some questions about the relation between what those working in that subject do and the real-world phenomena that are the object of their study. The main question I focus on in this essay is this: should academics and others working in (...)
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  47. Moral demands and the far future.Andreas Mogensen - manuscript
    I argue that moral philosophers have either misunderstood the problem of moral demandingness or at least failed to recognize important dimensions of the problem that undermine many standard assumptions. It has been assumed that utilitarianism concretely directs us to maximize welfare within a generation by transferring resources to people currently living in extreme poverty. In fact, utilitarianism seems to imply that any obligation to help people who are currently badly off is trumped by obligations to undertake actions targeted (...)
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  48.  12
    The Indolent Sympathy: An Explanation from Haidt’s Perspective.José Oliverio Tovar-Bohórquez - 2022 - Revista de Humanidades de Valparaíso 19:203-219.
    In this paper, I use Jonathan Haidt’s theory to explore an affective disposition that I call “indolent sympathy”. I argue that this disposition prevents a considerable group of human beings from showing solidarity with the millions of people who find themselves in conditions of poverty or extreme poverty. To demonstrate this, I will first present two dissimilar cases that show the type of affective disposition that I wish to submit to the reader’s consideration. Secondly, I will discuss (...)
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  49.  12
    The Indolent Sympathy: An Explanation from Haidt’s Perspective.José Oliverio Tovar-Bohórquez - 2022 - Revista de Humanidades de Valparaíso 19:203-219.
    In this paper, I use Jonathan Haidt’s theory to explore an affective disposition that I call “indolent sympathy”. I argue that this disposition prevents a considerable group of human beings from showing solidarity with the millions of people who find themselves in conditions of poverty or extreme poverty. To demonstrate this, I will first present two dissimilar cases that show the type of affective disposition that I wish to submit to the reader’s consideration. Secondly, I will discuss (...)
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  50.  6
    Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861-63.Enrique D. Dussel & Fred Moseley - 2001 - Psychology Press.
    This book is the first complete commentary on Marx's manuscripts of 1861-63, works that guide our understanding of fundamental concepts such as 'surplus-value' and 'production price'. The recent publication of Marx's writings in their entirety has been a seminal event in Marxian scholarship. The hitherto unknown second draft of Volume 1 and first draft of Volume 3 of Capital, both published in the Manuscripts of 1861-63, now provide an important intermediate link between the Grundrisse and the final published editions of (...)
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