L'idée de réunir un dossier sur le thème des guerres civiles s'est imposée au Comité de rédaction de CLIO, Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés sous l'effet de multiples inquiétudes ; celles qu'inspire l'irruption de massacres de masse, sur un continent européen qui paraissait guéri des affrontements sanglants des temps anciens. Des populations entières fuyant les tueries, l'accumulation des tortures et des viols commis par des proches, tout cela faisait lever en nos mémoires d'historiennes l'..

L'idée de réunir un dossier sur le thème des guerres civiles s'est imposée au Comité de rédaction de CLIO, Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés sous l'effet de multiples inquiétudes ; celles qu'inspire l'irruption de massacres de masse, sur un continent européen qui paraissait guéri des affrontements sanglants des temps anciens. Des populations entières fuyant les tueries, l'accumulation des tortures et des viols commis par des proches, tout cela faisait lever en nos mémoires d'historiennes l'...

Née en 1553, morte en 1611, cette forte personnalité compte dans l'histoire de la Provence au temps des guerres de religion : elle anime la Ligue aixoise. L'historiographie la salue encore aux XVIIe et XIXe siècle, puis elle s'enfonce dans l'oubli. L'intérêt pour les femmes de pouvoir au XVIe siècle, la mise à l'honneur d'héroïnes à contre-emploi des rôles féminins traditionnels la replacent en lumière. Cette biographie à caractère scientifique, écrite par une ingénieure de recherches ..

Née en 1553, morte en 1611, cette forte personnalité compte dans l'histoire de la Provence au temps des guerres de religion : elle anime la Ligue aixoise. L'historiographie la salue encore aux XVIIe et XIXe siècle, puis elle s'enfonce dans l'oubli. L'intérêt pour les femmes de pouvoir au XVIe siècle, la mise à l'honneur d'héroïnes à contre-emploi des rôles féminins traditionnels la replacent en lumière. Cette biographie à caractère scientifique, écrite par une ingénieure de recherches...

Des historiens hommes et des femmes On reçoit toujours avec intérêt un ouvrage produit par le séminaire de Jean Delumeau au Collège de France. Pour CLIO, Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés, celui-ci présente de nombreux traits passionnants. Traitant du rôle des femmes dans la société chrétienne, il est essentiellement écrit par des femmes, à l’initiative de deux femmes. Toutefois, c’est un homme qui le patronne et qui le présente, pour ces raisons mêmes, avec moult précautions, en écrivant dans sa...

Cette plaquette, de facture élégante, est due à un chercheur spécialisé dans l'histoire de la population de Metz sous la Révolution et l'Empire. Louise Louise de Poutet fait partie de ces femmes qui ont divorcé pendant la Révolution, contracté un nouveau mariage, puis réépousé leur premier mari. L'attention du chercheur a été retenue par une pièce d'archive : un mémoire du second époux. Loin d'apparaître comme un partenaire fictif, c'est un amoureux payé de retour qui proteste contre l..

Cette plaquette, de facture élégante, est due à un chercheur spécialisé dans l'histoire de la population de Metz sous la Révolution et l'Empire. Louise Louise de Poutet fait partie de ces femmes qui ont divorcé pendant la Révolution, contracté un nouveau mariage, puis réépousé leur premier mari. L'attention du chercheur a été retenue par une pièce d'archive : un mémoire du second époux. Loin d'apparaître comme un partenaire fictif, c'est un amoureux payé de retour qui proteste contre l...

La municipalité marseillaise décide en 1911 de construire un escalier monumental qui relie commodément la gare, juchée sur un plateau, à la ville qui s’étend à ses pieds. L’inauguration se déroule le 24 avril 1927, en présence du président de la République. Les architectes vainqueurs du concours ont imaginé un escalier en pente relativement douce, rythmé par sept paliers, dont certains sont assez larges pour accueillir un important décor sculpté. Le projet initial comportait, à mi-pente, deu...

Le témoignage d’Andrée Duby confirme que le thème de l’histoire des femmes émerge progressivement de l’étude de la famille et du mariage conduite depuis le début des années 1960. Peu de participants au séminaire d’Aix ont suivi le maître dans cette voie. Les Procès de Jeanne d’Arc sont une oeuvre commune dont Andrée Duby a assumé la préparation. Mais Georges Duby était bien davantage attiré par la spiritualité franciscaine.

Le témoignage d’Andrée Duby confirme que le thème de l’histoire des femmes émerge progressivement de l’étude de la famille et du mariage conduite depuis le début des années 1960. Peu de participants au séminaire d’Aix ont suivi le maître dans cette voie. Les Procès de Jeanne d’Arc sont une oeuvre commune dont Andrée Duby a assumé la préparation. Mais Georges Duby était bien davantage attiré par la spiritualité franciscaine.

Des historiens hommes et des femmes On reçoit toujours avec intérêt un ouvrage produit par le séminaire de Jean Delumeau au Collège de France. Pour CLIO, Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés, celui-ci présente de nombreux traits passionnants. Traitant du rôle des femmes dans la société chrétienne, il est essentiellement écrit par des femmes, à l’initiative de deux femmes. Toutefois, c’est un homme qui le patronne et qui le présente, pour ces raisons mêmes, avec moult précautions, en écrivant dans sa...

Des historiens hommes et des femmes On reçoit toujours avec intérêt un ouvrage produit par le séminaire de Jean Delumeau au Collège de France. Pour CLIO, Histoire, Femmes et Sociétés, celui-ci présente de nombreux traits passionnants. Traitant du rôle des femmes dans la société chrétienne, il est essentiellement écrit par des femmes, à l’initiative de deux femmes. Toutefois, c’est un homme qui le patronne et qui le présente, pour ces raisons mêmes, avec moult précautions, en écrivant dans sa...

Ce sont deux forts et beaux volumes que nous donne l'érudition régionale dans ce qu'elle a de meilleur. Ces Souvenirs offrent un témoignage rare, celui d'une femme, en des temps troublés ; un texte foisonnant, éclairci par des notes multiples ; une avalanche de détails éclairants sur le passé de la cité phocéenne, ses travaux et ses jours ; des analyses politiques par une femme attentive aux événements de sa ville et d'ailleurs. Le deuxième volume apporte de surcroît des pièces (...) complém... (shrink)

Ce sont deux forts et beaux volumes que nous donne l'érudition régionale dans ce qu'elle a de meilleur. Ces Souvenirs offrent un témoignage rare, celui d'une femme, en des temps troublés ; un texte foisonnant, éclairci par des notes multiples ; une avalanche de détails éclairants sur le passé de la cité phocéenne, ses travaux et ses jours ; des analyses politiques par une femme attentive aux événements de sa ville et d'ailleurs. Le deuxième volume apporte de surcroît des pièces (...) complém... (shrink)

L'auteure, italienne antifasciste dès l'adolescence, ne cache pas, dans son introduction, qu'elle écrit ce livre « comme un récit à deux miroirs ». Intriguée dans son enfance par le personnage de la « savante et poétesse...martyre de la liberté » dont une plaque conserve, à Rome, le souvenir, elle s'identifie largement, devenue adulte, à celle qui dirige et rédige à Naples, sous la Révolution, il Monitore napoletano. Peu connue en France, l'héroïne de la révolution napolitaine, marquis..

L'auteure, italienne antifasciste dès l'adolescence, ne cache pas, dans son introduction, qu'elle écrit ce livre « comme un récit à deux miroirs ». Intriguée dans son enfance par le personnage de la « savante et poétesse...martyre de la liberté » dont une plaque conserve, à Rome, le souvenir, elle s'identifie largement, devenue adulte, à celle qui dirige et rédige à Naples, sous la Révolution, il Monitore napoletano. Peu connue en France, l'héroïne de la révolution napolitaine, marquis...

L'auteure, italienne antifasciste dès l'adolescence, ne cache pas, dans son introduction, qu'elle écrit ce livre « comme un récit à deux miroirs ». Intriguée dans son enfance par le personnage de la « savante et poétesse...martyre de la liberté » dont une plaque conserve, à Rome, le souvenir, elle s'identifie largement, devenue adulte, à celle qui dirige et rédige à Naples, sous la Révolution, il Monitore napoletano. Peu connue en France, l'héroïne de la révolution napolitaine, marquis...

In the seventeenth century the microscope opened up a new world of observation, and, according to Catherine Wilson, profoundly revised the thinking of scientists and philosophers alike. The interior of nature, once closed off to both sympathetic intuition and direct perception, was now accessible with the help of optical instruments. The microscope led to a conception of science as an objective, procedure-driven mode of inquiry and renewed interest in atomism and mechanism. Focusing on the earliest forays into microscopical research, (...) from 1620 to 1720, this book provides us with both a compelling technological history and a lively assessment of the new knowledge that helped launch philosophy into the modern era. Wilson argues that the discovery of the microworld--and the apparent role of living animalcula in generation, contagion, and disease--presented metaphysicians with the task of reconciling the ubiquity of life with human-centered theological systems. It was also a source of problems for philosophers concerned with essences, qualities, and the limits of human knowledge, whose positions are echoed in current debates about realism and instrument-mediated knowledge. Covering the contributions of pioneering microscopists (Leeuwenhoek, Swammerdam, Malpighi, Grew, and Hooke) and the work of philosophers interested in the microworld (Bacon, Descartes, Leibniz, Malebranche, Locke, and Berkeley), she challenges historians who view the abstract sciences as the sole catalyst of the Scientific Revolution as she stresses the importance of observational and experimental science to the modern intellect. (shrink)

In the last decade, the organization of pharmaceutical research on neglected tropical diseases has undergone transformative change. In a context of perceived “market failure,” the development of new medicines is increasingly handled by public-private partnerships. This shift toward hybrid organizational models depends on a particular form of exchange: the sharing of proprietary assets in general and of intellectual property rights in particular. This article explores the paradoxical role of private property in this new configuration of global health research and development. (...) Rather than a tool to block potential competitors, proprietary assets function as a lever to attract others into risky collaborative ventures; instead of demarcating public and private domains, the sharing of property rights is used to increase the porosity of that boundary. This reimagination of the value of property is connected to the peculiar timescape of global health drug development, a promissory orientation to the future that takes its clearest form in the centrality of “virtual” business models and the proliferation of strategies of deferral. Drawing on the anthropological literature on inalienable possessions, we reconsider property’s traditional exclusionary role and discuss the possibility that the new pharmaceutical “commons” proclaimed by contemporary global health partnerships might be the precursor of future enclosures. (shrink)

Epicureanism is commonly associated with a carefree view of life and the pursuit of pleasures, particularly the pleasures of the table. However it was a complex and distinctive system of philosophy that emphasized simplicity and moderation, and considered nature to consist of atoms and the void. Epicureanism is a school of thought whose legacy continues to reverberate today.In this Very Short Introduction, Catherine Wilson explains the key ideas of the School, comparing them with those of the rival Stoics and (...) with Kantian ethics, and tracing their influence on the development of scientific and political thought from Locke, Newton, and Galileo to Rousseau, Marx, Bentham, and Mill. She discusses the adoption and adaptation of Epicurean motifs in science, morality, and politics from the 17th Century onwards and contextualises the significance of Epicureanism in modern life. ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable. (shrink)

Philosophical investigation in synthetic biology has focused on the knowledge-seeking questions pursued, the kind of engineering techniques used, and on the ethical impact of the products produced. However, little work has been done to investigate the processes by which these epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical forms of inquiry arise in the course of synthetic biology research. An attempt at this work relying on a particular area of synthetic biology will be the aim of this chapter. I focus on the reengineering of (...) metabolic pathways through the manipulation and construction of small DNA-based devices and systems synthetic biology. Rather than focusing on the engineered products or ethical principles that result, I will investigate the processes by which these arise. As such, the attention will be directed to the activities of practitioners, their manipulation of tools, and the use they make of techniques to construct new metabolic devices. Using a science-in-practice approach, I investigate problems at the intersection of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. I consider how practitioners within this area of synthetic biology reconfigure biological understanding and ethical categories through active modelling and manipulation of known functional parts, biological pathways for use in the design of microbial machines to solve problems in medicine, technology, and the environment. We might describe this kind of problem-solving as relying on what Helen Longino referred to as “social cognition” or the type of scientific work done within what Hasok Chang calls “systems of practice”. My aim in this chapter will be to investigate the relationship that holds between systems of practice within metabolic engineering research and social cognition. I will attempt to show how knowledge and normative valuation are generated from this particular network of practitioners. In doing so, I suggest that the social nature of scientific inquiry is ineliminable to both knowledge acquisition and ethical evaluations. (shrink)

This paper contrasts the scholastic realisms of David Armstrong and Charles Peirce. It is argued that the so-called 'problem of universals' is not a problem in pure ontology (concerning whether universals exist) as Armstrong construes it. Rather, it pertains to which predicates should be applied where, issues which Armstrong sets aside under the label of 'semantics', and which from a Peircean perspective encompass even fundamentals of scientific methodology. It is argued that Peirce's scholastic realism not only presents a more nuanced (...) ontology (distinguishing existence and reality) but also illuminates why scholastic realism is a position worth fighting for. (shrink)

This volume argues that feminist theory can provide distinctive and potent resources to confront and take on post-truth. By ‘post-truth’, we refer to a variety of discourses and practices that subvert the sense that we share a common world. Because post-truth undermines the norms and conditions that make possible shared political practices and institutions, post-truth politics is fundamentally anti-democratic. The most common response to post-truth has, however, come from those who call for reinstating truth and rationality, with special emphasis on (...) returning to the facts and fact-checking. From a feminist perspective, this approach is worrisome as it risks idealizing the connection between democracy and truth, disowning the tensions within and between them, and suppressing contestation tout court. Diagnosing the post-truth moment we face two challenges: on the one hand, there is too much contestation (of the post-truth variety); on the other hand, there is too much depoliticization (of the technocratic or rationalist variety). This binary effectively limits the space within which critiques of post-truth can meaningfully intervene. Feminist takes on post-truth must take seriously this dual challenge at the crossroads of depoliticization and hyper-politicization, acknowledging the anti-democratic dangers of post-truth while keeping open the possibility and necessity of contestation. Our gambit is that effective rejoinders to post-truth can be found in practices that affirm rather than repudiate a plural world. Rather than simply condemning or dismissing post-truth as mad or irrational, the feminist theorists in this volume move closer to what we’re up against in order to see how encounters with reality provide opportunities to radicalize and politicize our relation to it in ways that do not undermine the conditions for others to do the same. This volume is an attempt to open new, and emphasize existing, feminist modes of response that might break the deadlock in the post-truth discourse. (shrink)

There is probably no subject in the philosophy of art which has prompted more impassioned theorizing than the question of the ‘cognitive value’ of works of art. ‘In the end’, one influential critic has stated, ‘I do not distinguish between science and art except as regards method. Both provide us with a view of reality and both are indispensable to a complete understanding of the universe.’ If a man is not prepared to distinguish between science and art one may well (...) wonder what he is prepared to distinguish between, but in all fairness it should be pointed out that the writings of anti-cognitivists contain equally strenuous statements of doctrine. For I. A. Richards, poetry consists of ‘pseudo-statements’ which are ‘true’ if they ‘suit and serve some attitude or link together attitudes which on other grounds are desirable’. (shrink)

Uses arguments from Dharmakirti to construct an attack on Sellars' idea of an ideal scientific image.

Quelle est l'intention de Platon lorsqu'il fait de Socrate un virtuose de l'étymologie dans le Cratyle? Préciser les rapports entre la " science des lettres " qui se constitue en son siècle et la nouvelle théorie des Idées qu'il élabore. Socrate s'entretient avec le jeune Hermogène puis avec l'énigmatique Cratyle des rapports entre les mots et les choses. La rectitude des noms est-elle affaire de convention, ainsi que le soutient Hermogène? Ou s'agit-il d'un accord " naturel ", comme le prétend (...) Cratyle? Découvre-t-on cet accord par science ou par inspiration? Au terme du débat, après avoir mis à l'épreuve toutes les ressources de la " science des lettres ", Socrate propose une nouvelle théorie du nom, instrument faillible construit pour faire voir la réalité en la minant. Il dessine aussi un ordre des priorités : il faut d'abord connaître les êtres, puis les noms. " Savoir comment il faut apprendre ou découvrir les êtres, peut-être est-ce là trop lourde tâche pour toi et moi! C'est déjà beau de reconnaître qu'il ne faut pas partir des noms. ". (shrink)

In this introduction to a classic philosophical text, Catherine Wilson examines the arguments of Descartes' famous Meditations, the book which launched modern philosophy. Drawing on the reinterpretations of Descartes' thought of the past twenty-five years, she shows how Descartes constructs a theory of the mind, the body, nature, and God from a premise of radical uncertainty. She discusses in detail the historical context of Descartes' writings and their relationship to early modern science, and at the same time she introduces (...) concepts and problems that define the philosophical enterprise as it is understood today. Following closely the text of the Meditations and meant to be read alongside them, this survey is accessible to readers with no previous background in philosophy. It is well-suited to university-level courses on Descartes, but can also be read with profit by students in other disciplines. (shrink)

Background South Africa is likely to be the first country in the world to host an adolescent HIV vaccine trial. Adolescents may be enrolled in late 2007. In the development and review of adolescent HIV vaccine trial protocols there are many complexities to consider, and much work to be done if these important trials are to become a reality. Discussion This article sets out essential requirements for the lawful conduct of adolescent research in South Africa including compliance with consent requirements, (...) child protection laws, and processes for the ethical and regulatory approval of research. Summary This article outlines likely complexities for researchers and research ethics committees, including determining that trial interventions meet current risk standards for child research. Explicit recommendations are made for role-players in other jurisdictions who may also be planning such trials. This article concludes with concrete steps for implementing these important trials in South Africa and other jurisdictions, including planning for consent processes; delineating privacy rights; compiling information necessary for ethics committees to assess risks to child participants; training trial site staff to recognize when disclosures trig mandatory reporting response; networking among relevant ethics commitees; and lobbying the National Regulatory Authority for guidance. (shrink)

The practice of terminating a pregnancy following the diagnosis of a fetal abnormality raises questions about notions of bodily normality and the ways these shape ethical decision-making. This is particularly the case with terminations done on the basis of ostensibly minor morphological anomalies, such as cleft lip and isolated malformations of the limbs or digits. In this paper, I examine a recent case of selective termination after a morphology ultrasound scan revealed the fetus to be missing a hand . Using (...) the work of Georges Canguilhem, I show that a person with acheiria could be considered normal. Further, I show that this case reveals a kind of “undecidability” in the significance of fetal sex/gender and disability in termination. From this, I consider the conceptual interaction of disability with sex/gender, to argue that the ethics of disability termination are not as distinct from those of sex/gender selection as is commonly supposed. (shrink)

Moral properties are widely held to be response‐dependent properties of actions, situations, events and persons. There is controversy as to whether the putative response‐dependence of these properties nullifies any truth‐claims for moral judgements, or rather supports them. The present paper argues that moral judgements are more profitably compared with theoretical judgements in the natural sciences than with the judgements of immediate sense‐perception. The notion of moral truth is dependent on the notion of moral knowledge, which in turn is best understood (...) as a possible endpoint of theory change for the better. (shrink)

This article first examines pervasive present‐day attitudes toward humility before turning to Thomas Aquinas and Zhu Xi for their more positive treatments of this disposition. It then considers their ideas about how humility is related to our human limitations, before surveying how they think it should be expressed in our relationships with our neighbours. The article looks at what Thomas and Zhu have to say about excessive pride in rulers before closing in the Conclusion with some thoughts about the viability (...) of humility as a virtue for the strong, and its especial importance in contemporary politics. (shrink)

Anne Cova s'est emparée d'un sujet central pour l'histoire des femmes : la maternité. En 1977, Catherine Fouquet et Yvonne Knibiehler avaient publié la première synthèse, Histoire des mères du Moyen Age à nos jours. Élisabeth Badinter, en 1980, attirait elle aussi, avec L'Amour en plus, l'attention du public sur l'historicité du sentiment maternel, soulignant la mutation survenue au XVIIIe siècle : début de la limitation des naissances, rapprochement de la mère et de l'enfant, valorisa..

Anne Cova s'est emparée d'un sujet central pour l'histoire des femmes : la maternité. En 1977, Catherine Fouquet et Yvonne Knibiehler avaient publié la première synthèse, Histoire des mères du Moyen Age à nos jours. Élisabeth Badinter, en 1980, attirait elle aussi, avec L'Amour en plus, l'attention du public sur l'historicité du sentiment maternel, soulignant la mutation survenue au XVIIIe siècle : début de la limitation des naissances, rapprochement de la mère et de l'enfant, valorisa...

The ability to distinguish between our own actions and those of an external agent is a fundamental component of normal human social interaction. Both low- and high-level mechanisms are thought to contribute to the sense of movement agency, but the contribution of each is yet to be fully understood. By applying small and incremental perturbations to realistic visual feedback of the limb, the influence of high-level action intentions and low-level motor predictive mechanisms were dissociated in two experiments. In the first, (...) participants were induced to claim agency over movements that were subject to large perturbations and to deny agency over self-produced unperturbed movements despite the application of motor corrections by low-level mechanisms. A control experiment confirmed that if reaches met with their intended goal then they were more likely to be attributed to the agent, regardless of the discrepancy between the actual and seen positions of the limb. (shrink)

In the United States, the decision of whether to withdraw or continue to provide artificial nutrition and hydration (ANH) for patients in a permanent vegetative state (PVS) is placed largely in the hands of surrogate decision-makers, such as spouses and immediate family members. This practice would seem to be consistent with a strong national emphasis on autonomy and patient-centered healthcare. When there is ambiguity as to the patient's advanced wishes, the presumption has been that decisions should weigh in favor of (...) maintaining life, and therefore, that it is the withdrawal rather than the continuation of ANH that requires particular justification. I will argue that this default position should be reversed. Instead, I will argue that the burden of justification lies with those who would continue artificial nutrition and hydration (ANH), and in the absence of knowledge as to the patient's advanced wishes, it is better to discontinue ANH. In particular, I will argue that among patients in PVS, there is not a compelling interest in being kept alive; that in general, we commit a worse violation of autonomy by continuing ANH when the patient's wishes are unknown; and that more likely than not, the maintenance of ANH as a bridge to a theoretical future time of recovery goes against the best interests of the patient. (shrink)

Since the 19th century, and despite tremendous progress in science, the topic of 'brain and sex' remains a matter of misleading interpretations, far beyond the field of science. The media are not solely responsible for this situation. Some scientific circles still actively promote the ideology of biological determinism in their attempt to explain differences in behaviour and cognitive abilities between men and women. Experimental data from brain imaging studies, cognitive tests or the discovery of new genes are often distorted to (...) serve deterministic ideas. As biotechnologies and genetic engeneering represent today a new economic and lucrative challenge, the question of what is innate and what is acquired is becoming more and more significant, requiring vigilant scrutiny from us all. (shrink)

Augustine’s _Confessions_ is one of the most significant works of Western culture. Cast as a long, impassioned conversation with God, it is intertwined with passages of life-narrative and with key theological and philosophical insights. It is enduringly popular, and justly so. The Routledge Guidebook to Augustine’s Confessions is an engaging introduction to this spiritually creative and intellectually original work. This guidebook is organized by themes: the importance of language creation and the sensible world memory, time and the self the afterlife (...) of the Confessions. Written for readers approaching the _Confessions_ for the first time, this guidebook addresses the literary, philosophical, historical and theological complexities of the work in a clear and accessible way. Excerpts in both Latin and English from this seminal work are included throughout the book to provide a close examination of both the autobiographical and theoretical content within the _Confessions. _. (shrink)

The term "third wave" within contemporary feminism presents some initial difficulties in scholarly investigation. Located in popular-press anthologies, zines, punk music, and cyberspace, many third wave discourses constitute themselves as a break with both second wave and academic feminisms; a break problematic for both generations of feminists. The emergence of third wave feminism offers academic feminists an opportunity to rethink the context of knowledge production and the mediums through which we disseminate our work.

One of the main contributions of A Feminist Theory of Refusal is its connection of everyday action and prefigurative practices with an explicit commitment to structural change. But how such change happens, and what kind of relations it implies between ‘the city’ (as the existing political community) and feminist heterotopias of refusal, remains unclear. Reading Honig’s work as a prefigurative theory, I argue that it links moments of doing-otherwise with moments of institutional politics, sparking questions about the conditions of a (...) successful return to the city. I then develop these conditions through a case study of the feminist activism of Women on Waves; and argue that feminist refusal can lead to political transformation if it durably connects practices inside and outside the city. (shrink)