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Summary Genetic testing is carried out for different purposes: diagnostic, predictive, and reproductive. Diagnostic testing is complementary to other diagnostic techniques, yet it raises issues of confidentiality, privacy, data security, accidental findings, the right not to know and the duty to communicate valuable information to genetically related relatives. Predictive and reproductive testing are even more problematic. Predictive testing may raise different issues at the individual and population level (screening). At both the individual and the population level, it raises the issues of voluntariness, informed consent, legislative protection against discrimination. Reproductive testing raises issues of eugenics, nondirectiveness in reproductive decisions, and reproductive rights. Inequalities in access to testing technology and genetic counselling raise issues of justice. Other questions concern genetic knowledge itself: when is a genetic test sufficiently sensitive and reliable, when are its results adequately interpreted, in order for the test to be made available to individuals, commercialised, or offered to the population at large by health care institutions.
Key works Doukas & Berg 2001 and Brock 2001 offer a good and influential discussion of the conflict between confidentiality and the duty to prevent harm when a genetic test subject refuses to disclose own genetic information which might be relevant to a relative and allow an third party to prevent severe harm to herself. Beckman 2004 analyzes genetic self-tests and argues that while misperceptions and misunderstandings of genetic information compromise autonomy, genetic information does not (even if it causes anxiety, distress, and loss of life hope). Vehmas 2001 discusses whether prospective parents ought to find out about their genetic constitution for reproductive reasons and defends the parental right not to know. Influentially, Rhodes 1998 argues that no one has the right to remain in ignorance. Takala 1999 and Takala & Häyry 2000 defend the right not to know against Rhodes' attack. Rebecca 2001 defends the right of the woman to reject prenatal genetic testing. Savulescu 2001 argues that couples or single reproducers have a prima facie moral duty to select the embryo with the best life prospects,  selecting against harmful genetic susceptibilities and in favor of beneficial ones.
Introductions Robertson & Savulescu 2001 MacDonald & Williams-Jones 2002
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  1. (1 other version)Pre-existing conditions: Genetic testing, causation and the justice of medical insurance.Robert Pennock - manuscript
    In Rosamond Rhodes, Leslie Francis & Anita Silvers (eds.) Blackwell Guide to Medical Ethics. (Ch. 23, pp. 407-424, 2006).
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  2. International Aspects of Genetic Discrimination in Human Genome Research and Society.P. R. Billings - forthcoming - Proceedings of the Second International Bioethics Seminar.
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  3. Genetic Screening: Ethical Issues.Nuffield Council On Bioethics - forthcoming - Nuffield Bioethics, Uk.
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  4. Expanding Newborn Screening.Jeffreyr Botkin & Preventiveservices Ta Skforce - forthcoming - Hastings Center Report.
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  5. Privacy, the individual and genetic information: A buddhist perspective.Ts Champlin - forthcoming - Bioethics.
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  6. How do parents decide on genetic testing in pediatrics? A systematic review.Elena Sophia Doll, Seraina Petra Lerch, Katja Maria Schmalenberger, Karla Alex, Stefan Kölker, Heiko Brennenstuhl, Stacey Pereira, Hadley Smith, Eva C. Winkler, Julia Mahal & Beate Ditzen - forthcoming - Genetics in Medicine.
    Purpose This systematic review aims to identify factors that influence parents’ decisions regarding pediatric diagnostic and predictive genetic testing (DT/PT). Factors are integrated into a conceptual model of decision-making. Implications for genetic counseling, research, and ethics are derived. Methods PubMed, PsychInfo, WebofScience and references of related reviews were searched for original publications between 2000 and 2023. Extracted factors were categorized into an existing model. Results Of 5843 publications, 56 met inclusion criteria. The included studies differentiate between DT, traditional, and expanded (...)
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  7. The role of sentinel lymph node biopsy in breast cancer diagnosis.N. Dordevic, S. Filipovic & M. Pesic - forthcoming - Facta Universitatis, Series: Linguistics and Literature.
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  8. (2 other versions)Incidental findings of uncertain significance: To know or not to know - that is not the question.Bjørn Hofmann - forthcoming - Most Recent Articles: Bmc Medical Ethics.
    Although the “right not to know” is well established in international regulations, it has been heavily debated. Ubiquitous results from extended exome and genome analysis have challenged the right not to know...
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  9. Bioethical aspects of medical applications of human genome and gene therapy projects in Russia.Vladimir I. Ivanov - forthcoming - Bioethics in Asia. The Proceedings of the Unesco Asian Bioethics Conference and the Who-Assisted Satellite Symposium on Medical Genetics Services.
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  10. F12. Background of the proposed guidelines for genetic counselling and testing in Japan.Ichiro Matsuda - forthcoming - Bioethics in Asia: The Proceedings of the Unesco Asian Bioethics Conference (Abc'97) and the Who-Assisted Satellite Symposium on Medical Genetics Services, 3-8 Nov, 1997 in Kobe/Fukui, Japan, 3rd Murs Japan International Symposium, 2nd Congress of the Asi.
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  11. Every child is priceless: debating effective newborn screening policy.Virginia Moyer, Ned A. Calonge, Steven M. Teutsch & Jeffrey Botkin - forthcoming - Hastings Center Report.
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  12. Population screening.Ainsley J. Newson & A. Dawson - forthcoming - Public Health Ethics. Key Concepts and Issues in Policy and Practice.
    This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the ethical issues associated with population screening from the perspective of public health. Key principles and frameworks for ethical analysis are explained and discussed, including assessment of individual and collective interests in public health. Ethical dimensions of population screening are examined with close attention to complex overlapping ethical tensions. Section one briefly describes what is meant by ‘screening’ and reviews criteria for introducing screening programmes, section two presents examples of programmes and section three (...)
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  13. ""6.6. The Visual Transcription of" Family Disease": A Comparison of the Use of Medical Pedigrees in Canadian & Japanese Genetic Counselling Practices. [REVIEW]Yoshio Nukaga - forthcoming - Bioethics in Asia: The Proceedings of the Unesco Asian Bioethics Conference (Abc'97) and the Who-Assisted Satellite Symposium on Medical Genetics Services, 3-8 Nov, 1997 in Kobe/Fukui, Japan, 3rd Murs Japan International Symposium, 2nd Congress of the Asi.
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  14. 6.7. Ethical Issues on the Provision of Genetic Services to the Asian Population of New York City.Victor B. Penchaszadeh & Diana PuZales-Morejon - forthcoming - Bioethics in Asia: The Proceedings of the Unesco Asian Bioethics Conference (Abc'97) and the Who-Assisted Satellite Symposium on Medical Genetics Services, 3-8 Nov, 1997 in Kobe/Fukui, Japan, 3rd Murs Japan International Symposium, 2nd Congress of the Asi.
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  15. Presymptomatic Genetic Testing in Children.Kimberly A. Quaid - forthcoming - Pediatric Bioethics.
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  16. More Than a Decade of Rapid Genomic Sequencing: Where Are We Now?Carol J. Saunders, Luca Brunelli, Michael J. Deem, Emily G. Farrow, Madhuri Hegde & Zornitza Stark - forthcoming - Clinical Chemistry.
  17. F25. The Present State of and Issues Concerning Preimplantation Diagnosis.Kaoru Suzumori - forthcoming - Bioethics in Asia: The Proceedings of the Unesco Asian Bioethics Conference (Abc'97) and the Who-Assisted Satellite Symposium on Medical Genetics Services, 3-8 Nov, 1997 in Kobe/Fukui, Japan, 3rd Murs Japan International Symposium, 2nd Congress of the Asi.
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  18. Multiplex Genetic Testing.American Medical Association The Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs - forthcoming - Hastings Center Report.
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  19. F14. Panel Discussion on Medical Genetic Services and Bioethic Trends in Different Countries.Ishwar C. Verma - forthcoming - Bioethics in Asia: The Proceedings of the Unesco Asian Bioethics Conference (Abc'97) and the Who-Assisted Satellite Symposium on Medical Genetics Services, 3-8 Nov, 1997 in Kobe/Fukui, Japan, 3rd Murs Japan International Symposium, 2nd Congress of the Asi.
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  20. Reforming Informed Consent: On Disability and Genetic Counseling.Elizabeth Dietz & Joel Michael Reynolds - 2025 - In Michael J. Deem, Emily Farrow & Robin Grubs, The Oxford Handbook of Genetic Counseling. Oxford University Press USA.
    Informed consent is a central concept for empirical and theoretical research concerning pregnancy management decisions and is often taken to be one of the more fundamental goals of the profession of genetic counseling. Tellingly, this concept has been seen by disability communities as salutary, despite longstanding critiques made by disability activists, advocates, and scholars concerning practices involved in genetic counseling more generally. In this chapter, we show that the widespread faith in informed consent is misleading and can be detrimental to (...)
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  21. Views of Genetic Testing for Autism Among Autism Self-Advocates: A Qualitative Study.Robert Klitzman, Ekaterina Bezborodko, Wendy K. Chung & Paul S. Appelbaum - 2024 - AJOB Empirical Bioethics 15 (4):262-279.
    Background Autism self-advocates’ views regarding genetic tests for autism are important, but critical questions about their perspectives arise.Methods We interviewed 11 autism self-advocates, recruited through autism self-advocacy websites, for 1 h each.Results Interviewees viewed genetic testing and its potential pros and cons through the lens of their own indiviudal perceived challenges, needs and struggles, especially concerning stigma and discrimination, lack of accommodations and misunderstandings from society about autism, their particular needs for services, and being blamed by others and by themselves (...)
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  22. “I am happy to be alive, but I prefer to have children without my chronic disease”: chronically ill persons’ views on reproduction and genetic testing for their own condition.Anika König & Stefan Reinsch - 2024 - New Genetics and Society 43 (1).
    In Germany, the debate on preimplantation and prenatal testing is heavily influenced by the idea of an antagonism between prospective parents and their potential children. Underlying this antagonism is the assumption that prospective parents follow an ableist logic and do not regard the lives of children with a chronic illness as “worth living”. Taking the example of two rare genetic illnesses, Marfan Syndrome and Cystic Fibrosis, we investigate how persons who themselves are affected by these conditions view preimplantation or prenatal (...)
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  23. Ethical preparedness in the clinical genomics laboratory: the value of embedded ethics expertise.Gabriel Watts, Ainsley J. Newson & Lisa Dive - 2024 - Journal of Medical Ethics 50 (8):530-531.
    Sahan et al draw much needed attention to the ethical complexity encountered by clinical laboratory scientists. They point out that, on the one hand, clinical laboratories are increasingly required to analyse ‘much broader swathes’ of genomic information than had previously been the case and to consider how best to report—or not report—the results that arise. On the other hand, they also note how clinical laboratory services are supporting genomic testing that is transitioning from specialist to mainstream services, such that questions (...)
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  24. Is It Just for a Screening Program to Give People All the Information They Want?Lisa Dive, Isabella Holmes & Ainsley J. Newson - 2023 - American Journal of Bioethics 23 (7):34-42.
    Genomic screening at population scale generates many ethical considerations. One is the normative role that people’s preferences should play in determining access to genomic information in screening contexts, particularly information that falls beyond the scope of screening. We expect both that people will express a preference to receive such results and that there will be interest from the professional community in providing them. In this paper, we consider this issue in relation to the just and equitable design of population screening (...)
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  25. Preimplantation Genetic Testing for Adult-Onset Conditions.Avner Hershlag - 2023 - In Louise P. King & Isabelle C. Band, Case Studies in the Ethics of Assisted Reproduction. Springer Verlag. pp. 61-69.
    Preimplantation genetic testing for monogenic disease (PGT-M) can detect both childhood and adult-onset diseases. Unlike most childhood-onset genetic disorders, adult-onset conditions are typically dominant (presenting in 50% of offspring) and are associated with disease-free life until some point in adulthood. Examples discussed include BRCA mutation-associated cancers and Huntington’s disease. Ethical questions explored include: (1) the implications on a patient’s own moral value when they use PGT-M to rid a future child of a trait they possess, (2) exercising reproductive autonomy to (...)
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  26. Attitudes of deaf individuals towards genetic testing of genes known to cause hearing loss.Katherine L. Mascia & Nathaniel H. Robin - 2023 - Clinical Ethics 18 (2):230-235.
    Congenital deafness is one of the most common birth defects reported. Approximately 70% of congenital deafness is non-syndromic, and approximately 80% of non-syndromic hearing loss results from a genetic cause. Middleton et al.’s1998 study highlighted the negative attitudes of culturally Deaf individuals towards genetic testing for genes known to cause hearing loss. While studies concerning genetic testing for deafness genes reference Middleton’s study, to our knowledge a re-evaluation of the attitudes of Deaf individuals towards genetic testing has not been conducted (...)
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  27. Islamic Viewpoints on Opportunistic Sex Selection of IVF Embryos upon doing Preimplantation Genetic Testing for Preventing Genetic Diseases.Sayyed Mohamed Muhsin, Shaima Zohair Arab & Alexis Heng Boon Chin - 2023 - Asian Bioethics Review 16 (2):223-232.
    In recent years, preimplantation genetic testing (PGT) of IVF embryos have gained much traction in clinical assisted reproduction for preventing various genetic defects, including Down syndrome. However, such genetic tests inevitably reveal the sex of IVF embryos by identifying the sex (X and Y) chromosomes. In many countries with less stringent IVF regulations, information on the sex of embryos that are tested to be genetically normal is readily shared with patients. This would thus present Muslim patients with unintended opportunities for (...)
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  28. Consistency of What? Appropriately Contextualizing Ethical Analysis of Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing.Ainsley J. Newson, Zuzana Deans, Lisa Dive & Isabella Catherine Holmes - 2023 - American Journal of Bioethics 23 (3):56-58.
    It is unarguable that the implementation and use of noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) should be critical and appropriate. After all, decisions that influence when and how to have children have ut...
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  29. A practical checklist for return of results from genomic research in the European context.Danya F. Vears, Signe Mežinska, Nina Hallowell, Heidi Beate Hallowell, Bridget Ellul, Therese Haugdahl Nøst, , Berge Solberg, Angeliki Kerasidou, Shona M. Kerr, Michaela Th Mayrhofer, Elizabeth Ormondroyd, Birgitte Wirum Sand & Isabelle Budin-Ljøsne - 2023 - European Journal of Human Genetics 1:1-9.
    An increasing number of European research projects return, or plan to return, individual genomic research results (IRR) to participants. While data access is a data subject’s right under the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), and many legal and ethical guidelines allow or require participants to receive personal data generated in research, the practice of returning results is not straightforward and raises several practical and ethical issues. Existing guidelines focusing on return of IRR are mostly project-specific, only discuss which results to (...)
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  30. Is there a duty to routinely reinterpret genomic variant classifications?Gabriel Watts & Ainsley J. Newson - 2023 - Journal of Medical Ethics 49 (12):808-814.
    Multiple studies show that periodic reanalysis of genomic test results held by clinical laboratories delivers significant increases in overall diagnostic yield. However, while there is a widespread consensus that implementing routine reanalysis procedures is highly desirable, there is an equally widespread understanding that routine reanalysis of individual patient results is not presently feasible to perform for all patients. Instead, researchers, geneticists and ethicists are beginning to turn their attention to one part of reanalysis—reinterpretation of previously classified variants—as a means of (...)
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  31. Sharing precision medicine data with private industry: Outcomes of a citizens’ jury in Singapore.Angela Ballantyne, Tamra Lysaght, Hui Jin Toh, Serene Ong, Andrew Lau, G. Owen Schaefer, Vicki Xafis, E. Shyong Tai, Ainsley J. Newson, Stacy Carter, Chris Degeling & Annette Braunack-Mayer - 2022 - Big Data and Society 9 (1).
    Precision medicine is an emerging approach to treatment and disease prevention that relies on linkages between very large datasets of health information that is shared amongst researchers and health professionals. While studies suggest broad support for sharing precision medicine data with researchers at publicly funded institutions, there is reluctance to share health information with private industry for research and development. As the private sector is likely to play an important role in generating public benefits from precision medicine initiatives, it is (...)
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  32. Access to Expanded Prenatal Genetic Testing: Response to Open Peer Commentaries.Michelle J. Bayefsky & Benjamin E. Berkman - 2022 - American Journal of Bioethics 22 (5):1-3.
    We would like to thank the authors of the excellent Open Peer Commentaries on our target article, “Implementing Expanded Prenatal Genetic Testing: Should Parents Have Access to Any and All Fetal Ge...
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  33. Genetic Testing Is Messier in Practice than in Theory: Lessons from Neonatology.Chris Feudtner & Katharine Press Callahan - 2022 - American Journal of Bioethics 22 (2):37-39.
    What is the future of genetic testing during pregnancy likely to look like? Given that the patterns of use of genetic testing in neonatology tend to precede, and thus predict, patterns of prenatal...
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  34. Anti-Selection & Genetic Testing in Insurance: An Interdisciplinary Perspective.Dexter Golinghorst, Aisling de Paor, Yann Joly, Angus S. Macdonald, Margaret Otlowski, Richard Peter & Anya E. R. Prince - 2022 - Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 50 (1):139-154.
    Anti-selection occurs when information asymmetry exists between insurers and applicants. When an applicant knows they are at high risk of loss, but the insurer does not, the applicant may try to use this knowledge differential to secure insurance at a lower premium that does not match risk.
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  35. Davidson on Pure Intending: A Non-Reductionist Judgement-Dependent Account.Ali Hossein Khani - 2022 - Dialogue 61 (2):369-391.
    RésuméJe soutiendrai que la façon dont Davidson rend compte de l'intention pure peut être comprise comme une analyse de l'intention comme étant relative à un jugement dans une perspective en première personne. Selon Davidson, avoir la pure intention de faire A, c'est formuler un jugement tout bien considéré qu'il est désirable de faire A. Dans cette analyse anti-réductionniste, l'intention est traitée comme un état irréductible du sujet. J’établirai une comparaison entre cette analyse et celle de Wright et je montrerai comment (...)
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  36. Intertwined Interests in Expanded Prenatal Genetic Testing: The State’s Role in Facilitating Equitable Access.Kathryn MacKay, Zuzana Deans, Isabella Holmes, Ainsley J. Newson & Lisa Dive - 2022 - American Journal of Bioethics 22 (2):45-47.
    In their analysis of how much fetal genetic information prospective parents should be able to access, Bayefsky and Berkman determine that parents should only be able to access information th...
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  37. The Serious Factor in Expanded Prenatal Genetic Testing.Vardit Ravitsky, Anne-Marie Laberge, Marie-Christine Roy, Bartha Knoppers, Vasiliki Rahimzadeh & Erika Kleiderman - 2022 - American Journal of Bioethics 22 (2):23-25.
    Bayefsky and Berkman argue in favor of evidence-based policy development for expanded prenatal genetic testing. They propose to identify what kinds of information pregnant persons, their par...
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  38. Privacy, autonomy and direct-to-consumer genetic testing: a response to Vayena.Kyle van Oosterum - 2022 - Journal of Medical Ethics 48 (10):774-775.
    In Vayena’s article, ‘direct-to-consumer (DTC) genomics on the scales of autonomy’, she claims that there may be a strong autonomy-based argument for permitting DTC genomic services. In this response, I point out how the diminishment of one’s genetic privacy can cause a relevant autonomy-related harm which must be balanced against the autonomy-related gains DTC services provide. By drawing on conceptual connections between privacy and the Razian conception of autonomy, I show that DTC genetic testing may decrease the range of valuable (...)
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  39. Preimplantation Genetic Testing: An Orthodox-Christian Reflection on the Ethical Issues.Р.Е Тарабрин - 2022 - Bioethics 15 (1):40-45.
    Background: Preimplantation genetic testing is used in In Vitro Fertilization to identify genetic abnormalities in embryos. Genetically defective embryos are not transferred to the uterus, resulting in a higher percentage of healthy babies born. Aim: to study the ethical problems of using preimplantation genetic testing in Orthodox Christian discourse. Materials and methods: An analysis of the provisions of Orthodox ethics, expressed in the church resolutions of the Russian Orthodox Church and the general church teaching on morality, was carried out in (...)
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  40. Regulatory and medical aspects of direct-to-consumer genetic testing.M. Sharkey Catherine, Michael Xiaohan Wu & Kenneth Offit F. Walsh - 2021 - In I. Glenn Cohen, Nita A. Farahany, Henry T. Greely & Carmel Shachar, Consumer genetic technologies: ethical and legal considerations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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  41. Ethics of Reproductive Genetic Carrier Screening: From the Clinic to the Population.Lisa Dive & Ainsley J. Newson - 2021 - Public Health Ethics 14 (2):202-217.
    Reproductive genetic carrier screening is increasingly being offered more widely, including to people with no family history or otherwise elevated chance of having a baby with a genetic condition. There are valid reasons to reject a prevention-focused public health ethics approach to such screening programs. Rejecting the prevention paradigm in this context has led to an emphasis on more individually-focused values of freedom of choice and fostering reproductive autonomy in RCS. We argue, however, that population-wide RCS has sufficient features in (...)
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  42. The Good and the Goal of Pre-conception and Pre-natal Genetic Testing from a Catholic Perspective.Kevin Fitzgerald - 2021 - In Megan A. Allyse & Marsha Michie, Born Well: Prenatal Genetics and the Future of Having Children. Springer Verlag. pp. 93-103.
    In the United States in particular, one institution that consistently resisted the social momentum to implement eugenic public policies was the Catholic Church. From the Catholic perspective, everyone is worthy, and the focus should be on figuring out how best to care for each individual human being, with access to scarce resources given first to those who need them the most. This chapter addresses the ethical challenge of eugenics and genetic technologies, including preconception and pre-natal genetic testing and genome editing, (...)
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  43. Liability implications of direct-to-consumer genetic testing.E. Marchant Gary, Ellen Mark Barnes, Susan W. Clayton & M. Wolf - 2021 - In I. Glenn Cohen, Nita A. Farahany, Henry T. Greely & Carmel Shachar, Consumer genetic technologies: ethical and legal considerations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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  44. Privacy best practices for direct-to-consumer genetic testing services : are industry efforts at self-regulation sufficient?James W. Hazel - 2021 - In I. Glenn Cohen, Nita A. Farahany, Henry T. Greely & Carmel Shachar, Consumer genetic technologies: ethical and legal considerations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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  45. Losing our minds? direct-to-consumer genetic testing and Alzheimer's disease.Emily Largent - 2021 - In I. Glenn Cohen, Nita A. Farahany, Henry T. Greely & Carmel Shachar, Consumer genetic technologies: ethical and legal considerations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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  46. Eugenics or Not, Prenatal Genetic Testing’s Common Issues Need to Be Addressed.Mark W. Leach - 2021 - In Megan A. Allyse & Marsha Michie, Born Well: Prenatal Genetics and the Future of Having Children. Springer Verlag. pp. 33-44.
    Critiques of prenatal genetic testing as eugenic have been debated for decades, but this strident debate can obscure ways in which persistent eugenic aspects of prenatal genetic testing can and should be addressed. Comparing arguments and professional guidelines regarding prenatal testing for genetic conditions with those regarding sex selection can provide useful insights into the ways prenatal genetic testing is offered by clinicians and administered by government programs. This chapter addresses the predominant funding models for prenatal genetic testing and ways (...)
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  47. Genetic Testing and Screening of Children.M. B. Menzel & V. N. Madrigal - 2021 - In Nico Nortjé & Johan C. Bester, Pediatric Ethics: Theory and Practice. Springer Verlag. pp. 313-328.
    Scientific advancements in the genetic testing and screeningGenetic testing and screening of children have provided answers for some and afforded therapies and preventive guidance for others. These benefits have the potential to revolutionize preventive medicine and categorically change outcomes in specific diseases. Ethical challenges emerge, however, when the benefits of testing come with a price related to its inherent ambiguities and uncertainties. Testing a child at risk for a condition of adult onset, for example, has generated tremendous debate and though (...)
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  48. Ethical issues in genomics research on neurodevelopmental disorders: a critical interpretive review.Signe Mezinska, L. Gallagher, M. Verbrugge & E. M. Bunnik - 2021 - Human Genomics 16 (15).
    Background Genomic research on neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), particularly involving minors, combines and amplifies existing research ethics issues for biomedical research. We performed a review of the literature on the ethical issues associated with genomic research involving children affected by NDDs as an aid to researchers to better anticipate and address ethical concerns. Results Qualitative thematic analysis of the included articles revealed themes in three main areas: research design and ethics review, inclusion of research participants, and communication of research results. Ethical (...)
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  49. The myth of "anonymous" gamete donation in the age of direct-to-consumer genetic testing.Seema Mohapatra - 2021 - In I. Glenn Cohen, Nita A. Farahany, Henry T. Greely & Carmel Shachar, Consumer genetic technologies: ethical and legal considerations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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  50. Access to Prenatal Testing and Ethically Informed Counselling in Germany, Poland and Russia.Marcin Orzechowski, Cristian Timmermann, Katarzyna Woniak, Oxana Kosenko, Galina Lvovna Mikirtichan, Alexandr Zinovievich Lichtshangof & Florian Steger - 2021 - Journal of Personalized Medicine 11 (9):937.
    The development of new methods in the field of prenatal testing leads to an expansion of information that needs to be provided to expectant mothers. The aim of this research is to explore opinions and attitudes of gynecologists in Germany, Poland and Russia towards access to prenatal testing and diagnostics in these countries. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with n = 18 gynecologists in Germany, Poland and Russia. The interviews were analyzed using the methods of content analysis and thematic analysis. Visible (...)
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