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Donna Dickenson [95]Donna L. Dickenson [8]
  1. Property in the Body: Feminist Perspectives.Donna Dickenson - 2007 - Cambridge University Press.
    New developments in biotechnology radically alter our relationship with our bodies. Body tissues can now be used for commercial purposes, while external objects, such as pacemakers, can become part of the body. Property in the Body: Feminist Perspectives transcends the everyday responses to such developments, suggesting that what we most fear is the feminisation of the body. We fear our bodies are becoming objects of property, turning us into things rather than persons. This book evaluates how well-grounded this fear is, (...)
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  2. Me Medicine vs. We Medicine: Reclaiming Biotechnology for the Common Good.Donna Dickenson - 2013 - New York, USA: Columbia University Press.
    Even in the increasingly individualized American medical system, advocates of 'personalized medicine' claim that healthcare isn't individualized enough. With the additional glamour of new biotechnologies such as genetic testing and pharmacogenetics behind it, 'Me Medicine'-- personalized or stratified medicine-- appears to its advocates as the inevitable and desirable way of the future. Drawing on an extensive evidence base, this book examines whether these claims are justified. It goes on to examine an alternative tradition rooted in communitarian ideals, that of the (...)
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  3. Risk and luck in medical ethics.Donna Dickenson - 2003 - Cambridge, UK: Polity.
    This book examines the moral luck paradox, relating it to Kantian, consequentialist and virtue-based approaches to ethics. It also applies the paradox to areas in medical ethics, including allocation of scarce medical resources, informed consent to treatment, withholding life-sustaining treatment, psychiatry, reproductive ethics, genetic testing and medical research. If risk and luck are taken seriously, it might seem to follow that we cannot develop any definite moral standards, that we are doomed to moral relativism. However, Dickenson offers strong counter-arguments to (...)
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  4.  41
    Commodification of Human Tissue: Implications for Feminist and Development Ethics.Donna Dickenson - 2002 - Developing World Bioethics 2 (1):55-63.
    One effect of late capitalism – the commodification of practically everything – is to knock down the Chinese walls between the natural and productive realms, to use a Marxist framework. Women's labour in egg extraction and ‘surrogate’ motherhood might then be seen as what it is, labour which produces something of value. But this does not necessarily mean that women will benefit from the commodification of practically everything, in either North or South. In the newly developing biotechnologies involving stem cells, (...)
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  5.  63
    Are medical ethicists out of touch? Practitioner attitudes in the US and UK towards decisions at the end of life.Donna Dickenson - 2000 - Journal of Medical Ethics 26 (4):254-260.
    Objectives—To assess whether UK and US health care professionals share the views of medical ethicists about medical futility, withdrawing/withholding treatment, ordinary/extraordinary interventions, and the doctrine of double effectDesign, subjects and setting–A 138-item attitudinal questionnaire completed by 469 UK nurses studying the Open University course on “Death and Dying” was compared with a similar questionnaire administered to 759 US nurses and 687 US doctors taking the Hastings Center course on “Decisions near the End of Life”.Results–Practitioners accept the relevance of concepts widely (...)
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  6. The Lady Vanishes: What’s Missing from the Stem Cell Debate.Donna L. Dickenson - 2006 - Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 3 (1):43-54.
    Most opponents of somatic cell nuclear transfer and embryonic stem cell technologies base their arguments on the twin assertions that the embryo is either a human being or a potential human being, and that it is wrong to destroy a human being or potential human being in order to produce stem cell lines. Proponents’ justifications of stem cell research are more varied, but not enough to escape the charge of obsession with the status of the embryo. What unites the two (...)
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  7. Cross-cultural Issues in European Bioethics.Donna L. Dickenson - 1999 - Bioethics 13 (3-4):249-255.
    This article, arising from a comparative European Commission project, analyses different national perspectives on bioethics issues.
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  8.  48
    Evidence-Based Medicine and Quality of Care.Donna Dickenson & Paolo Vineis - 2002 - Health Care Analysis 10 (3):243-259.
    In this paper we set out to examine thearguments for and against the claim thatEvidence-Based Medicine (EBM) will improve thequality of care. In particular, we examine thefollowing issues.
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  9.  65
    Ethical issues in limb transplants.Donna Dickenson & Guy Widdershoven - 2001 - Bioethics 15 (2):110–124.
    On one view, limb transplants cross technological frontiers but not ethical ones; the only issues to be resolved concern professional competence, under the assumption of patient autonomy. Given that the benefits of limb transplant do not outweigh the risks, however, the autonomy and rationality of the patient are not necessarily self‐evident. In addition to questions of resource allocation and informed consent, limb, and particularly hand, allograft also raises important issues of personal identity and bodily integrity. We present two linked schemas (...)
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  10. Property, Women, and Politics: Subjects or Objects?Donna Dickenson - 1997 - Cambridge: Polity.
    This book contributes to the feminist reconstruction of political theory. Although many feminist authors have pointed out the ways in which women have been property, they have been less successful in suggesting how women might become the subjects rather than the objects of property-holding. This book synthesises political theory from liberal, Marxist, Kantian and Hegelian traditions, applying these ideas to history and social policy.
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  11.  47
    Human Tissue and Global Ethics.Donna Dickenson - 2005 - Genomics, Society and Policy 1 (1):1-13.
    One important sense of 'global ethics' concerns the applied ethical issues arising in the context of economic globalisation. This article contends that we are beginning to witness the economic commodification and, concomitantly, the globalisation, of human tissue and the human genome. Policy-makers and local research ethics committees need to be aware that the relevant ethical questions are no longer confined to their old national or subnational context. A shift from questions of personal autonomy and identity can therefore be expected-towards the (...)
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  12. Linking Visions: Feminist Bioethics, Human Rights, and the Developing World.Karen L. Baird, María Julia Bertomeu, Martha Chinouya, Donna Dickenson, Michele Harvey-Blankenship, Barbara Ann Hocking, Laura Duhan Kaplan, Jing-Bao Nie, Eileen O'Keefe, Julia Tao Lai Po-wah, Carol Quinn, Arleen L. F. Salles, K. Shanthi, Susana E. Sommer, Rosemarie Tong & Julie Zilberberg - 2004 - Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
    This collection brings together fourteen contributions by authors from around the globe. Each of the contributions engages with questions about how local and global bioethical issues are made to be comparable, in the hope of redressing basic needs and demands for justice. These works demonstrate the significant conceptual contributions that can be made through feminists' attention to debates in a range of interrelated fields, especially as they formulate appropriate responses to developments in medical technology, global economics, population shifts, and poverty.
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  13.  40
    Can Medical Criteria Settle Priority-Setting Debates? The Need for Ethical Analysis.Donna L. Dickenson - 1999 - Health Care Analysis 7 (2):131-137.
    Medical criteria rooted in evidence-based medicine are often seen as a value-neutral ‘trump card’ which puts paid to any further debate about setting priorities for treatment. On this argument, doctors should stop providing treatment at the point when it becomes medically futile, and that is also the threshold at which the health purchaser should stop purchasing. This paper offers three kinds of ethical criteria as a counterweight to analysis based solely on medical criteria. The first set of arguments concerns futility, (...)
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  14.  80
    Property and women’s alienation from their own reproductive labour.Donna L. Dickenson - 2001 - Bioethics 15 (3):205–217.
    There is an urgent need for reconstructing models of property to make them more women-friendly. However, we need not start from scratch: both ‘canonical’ and feminist authors can sometimes provide concepts which we can refine and apply towards women’s propertylessness. This paper looks in particular at women’s alienation from their reproductive labour, building on Marx and Delphy. Developing an economic and political rather than a psychological reading of alienation, it then considers how the refined and revised concept can be applied (...)
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  15. Personalised Medicine, Individual Choice and the Common Good.Britta van Beers, Sigrid Sterckx & Donna Dickenson (eds.) - 2018 - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    This is a volume of twelve essays concerning the fundamental tension in personalised medicine between individual choice and the common good.
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  16.  52
    Consent, commodification and benefit‐sharing in genetic research1.Donna Dickenson - 2004 - Developing World Bioethics 4 (2):109-124.
    We are witnessing is nothing less than a new kind of gold rush, and the territory is the body.
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  17. Body Shopping: The Economy Fuelled by Flesh and Blood.Donna Dickenson - 2008 - Oxford: Oneworld.
    'An alarming and illuminating book. The story of how we have allowed private corporations to patent genes, to stockpile human tissue, and in short to make profits out of what many people feel ought to be common goods is a shocking one. No one with any interest at all in medicine and society and how they interact should miss this book, and it should be required reading for every medical student,'--Philip Pullman.
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  18.  63
    Ova donation for stem cell research: An international perspective.Donna Dickenson & Itziar Alkorta Idiakez - 2008 - International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics 1 (2):125-144.
    Should clinicians ask women to donate or even sell their eggs for stem cell research? Enucleated ova are crucial in somatic cell nuclear transfer technologies, but risky for women’s health. Until comparatively recently, very few commentators debated the ethical issues in egg donation and sale, concentrating on the embryo’s status. The unmasking of Hwang Woo Suk, who used over 2,200 ova in his fraudulent research, has finally brought the question of ova donation and sale into prominence. In this article we (...)
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  19.  64
    Did a permissive scientific culture encourage the 'CRISPR babies' experiment?Donna Dickenson & Marcy Darnovsky - 2019 - Nature Biotechnology 27:350-369.
    We review the Nuffield Council on Bioethics 2018 report on germline gene editing and show how its shortcomings are part of an increasingly permissive climate among elite scientists that may well have emboldened the Chinese 'CRISPR babies' experiment. Without a robust and meaningful airing of the perils of human germline modification, these views are likely to encourage additional, more mainstream moves in the same dangerous direction.
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  20. Healthcare Ethics and Human Values: An Introductory Text with Readings and Case Studies.K. W. M. Fulford, Donna Dickenson & Thomas H. Murray (eds.) - 2002 - Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell.
    This volume illustrates the central importance of diversity of human values throughout healthcare. The readings are organized around the main stages of the clinical encounter from the patient's perspective. They run from staying well and 'first contact' through to either recovery or to long-term illness, death and dying.
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  21. Altered Inheritance: CRISPR and the Ethics of Human Genome Editing.Donna Dickenson - 2020 - The New Bioethics 26 (1):75-77.
    Review of Francoise Baylis, Altered Inheritance: CRISPR and the Ethics of Human Genome Editing (2019).
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  22. The threatened trade in human ova.Donna Dickenson - 2004 - Nature Reviews Genetics 5 (3):157.
    It is well known that there is a shortage of human ova for in vitro fertilization (IVF) purposes, but little attention has been paid to the way in which the demand for ova in stem-cell technologies is likely to exacerbate that shortfall and create a trade in human eggs. Because the 'Dolly' technology relies on enucleated ova in large quantities, allowing for considerable wastage, there is a serious threat that commercial and research demands for human eggs will grow exponentially from (...)
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  23.  50
    The Commercialization of Human Eggs in Mitochondrial Replacement Research.Donna L. Dickenson - 2013 - The New Bioethics 19 (1):18-29.
    After the commercialisation of induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSCs) in 2007, the pressure to commercialise women's eggs for stem cell research could have been expected to lessen. However, the pressure to harvest human eggs in large quantities for research has not diminished; rather, it has taken different directions, for example, in germline mitochondrial research. Yet there has been little acknowledgement of these technologies' need for human eggs, the possible risks to women and the ethical issues concerning potential exploitation. Rather, there (...)
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  24. Can children withhold consent to treatment.John Devereux, Donna Dickenson & D. P. H. Jones - 1993 - British Medical Journal 306 (6890):1459-1461.
    A dilemma exists when a doctor is faced with a child or young person who refuses medically indicated treatment. The Gillick case has been interpreted by many to mean that a child of sufficient age and intelligence could validly consent or refuse consent to treatment. Recent decisions of the Court of Appeal on a child's refusal of medical treatment have clouded the issue and undermined the spirit of the Gillick decision and the Children Act 1989. It is now the case (...)
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  25.  33
    Introduction to the article collection ‘Translation in healthcare: ethical, legal, and social implications’.Michael Morrison, Donna Dickenson & Sandra Soo-Jin Lee - 2016 - BMC Medical Ethics 17 (1):74.
    New technologies are transforming and reconfiguring the boundaries between patients, research participants and consumers, between research and clinical practice, and between public and private domains. From personalised medicine to big data and social media, these platforms facilitate new kinds of interactions, challenge longstanding understandings of privacy and consent, and raise fundamental questions about how the translational patient pathway should be organised.This editorial introduces the cross-journal article collection "Translation in healthcare: ethical, legal, and social implications", briefly outlining the genesis of the (...)
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  26.  45
    The time frame of preferences, dispositions, and the validity of advance directives for the mentally ill.Julian Savulescu & Donna Dickenson - 1998 - Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology 5 (3):225-246.
  27. Gender and ethics committees: Where's the 'different voice'?Donna Dickenson - 2006 - Bioethics 20 (3):115–124.
    Abstract Gender and Ethics Committees: Where’s the Different Voice? -/- Prominent international and national ethics commissions such as the UNESCO Bioethics Commission rarely achieve anything remotely resembling gender equality, although local research and clinical ethics committees are somewhat more egalitarian. Under-representation of women is particularly troubling when the subject matter of modern bioethics so disproportionately concerns women’s bodies, and when such committees claim to derive ‘universal’ standards. Are women missing from many ethics committees because of relatively straightforward, if discriminatory, demographic (...)
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  28. (1 other version)Donating gametes for research and therapy: a reply to Donald Evans.Donna Dickenson - 1997 - Journal of Medical Ethics 23 (2):93-95.
    There has been a troublesome anomaly in the UK between cash payment to men for sperm donation and the effective assumption that women will pay to donate eggs. Some commentators, including Donald Evans in this journal, have argued that the anomaly should be resolved by treating women on the same terms as men. But this argument ignores important difficulties about property in the body, particularly in relation to gametes. There are good reasons for thinking that the contract model and payment (...)
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  29. Alternatives to a corporate commons: biobanking, genetics and property in the body.Donna Dickenson - 2014 - In Imogen Goold, Jonathan Herring, Kate Greasley & Loane Skene (eds.), Persons, Parts and Property: How Should We Regulate Human Tissue in the 21st Century? Hart Publishing. pp. 177-196.
    In this chapter I argue that the old common law concept of the commons can make a major contribution to how we regulate human tissue and genetic information in the twenty-first century. But if we want to use this concept, we will have to act fast, because private corporate interests have already realised the relevance of the commons for holdings in human tissue and genetic information. Instead of a commonly created and held resource, however, they have sought to create one (...)
     
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  30.  47
    Global Bioethics.Heather Widdows, Donna Dickenson & Sirkku Hellsten - 2003 - New Review of Bioethics 1 (1):101-116.
    The emergence of global bioethics is connected to a rise of interest in ethics in general (both in academia and in the public sphere), combined with an increasing awareness of the interrelatedness of peoples and their ethical dilemmas, and the recognition that global problems need global solutions. In short, global bioethics has two distinguishing features: first, its global scope, both geographically and conceptually; and second, its focus on justice (communal and individual).
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  31. Cutting to the Core: Exploring the Ethics of Contested Surgeries.Michael Benatar, Leslie Cannold, Dena Davis, Merle Spriggs, Julian Savulescu, Heather Draper, Neil Evans, Richard Hull, Stephen Wilkinson, David Wasserman, Donna Dickenson, Guy Widdershoven, Françoise Baylis, Stephen Coleman, Rosemarie Tong, Hilde Lindemann, David Neil & Alex John London - 2006 - Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
    When the benefits of surgery do not outweigh the harms or where they do not clearly do so, surgical interventions become morally contested. Cutting to the Core examines a number of such surgeries, including infant male circumcision and cutting the genitals of female children, the separation of conjoined twins, surgical sex assignment of intersex children and the surgical re-assignment of transsexuals, limb and face transplantation, cosmetic surgery, and placebo surgery.
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  32. Moral Luck in Medical Ethics and Practical Politics.Donna Dickenson - 1989 - Dissertation, Open University (United Kingdom)
    Available from UMI in association with The British Library. ;Typically we maintain two incompatible standards towards right action and good character, and the tension between these polarities creates the paradox of moral luck. In practice we regard actions as right or wrong, and character as good or bad, partly according to what happens as a result of the agent's decision. Yet we also think that people should not be held responsible for matters beyond their control. ;This split underpins Kant's assertion (...)
     
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  33. Decision-making competence in adults: a philosopher's viewpoint.Donna Dickenson - 2001 - Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 7 (5):381-387.
    What does it mean to respect autonomy and encourage meaningful consent to treatment in the case of patients who have dementia or are otherwise incompetent? This question has been thrown into sharp relief by the Law Lords' decision in R.v Bournewood Community and Mental Health NHS Trust, ex parte L.
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  34. Counting women in: globalization, democratization and the women's movement.Donna Dickenson - 1997 - In Anthony McGrew (ed.), The Transformation of Democracy? Polity. pp. 97-120.
    The feminist movement may seek democratization on a global scale, but women are still hampered by a democratic deficit in terms of economic and political power. On the other hand, global feminist networks and new expanded forms of non-territorial political space do appear to be increasing democratic participation for women.
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  35.  47
    The European Biomedical Ethics Practitioner Education Project: An experiential approach to philosophy and ethics in health care education.Donna Dickenson & Michael J. Parker - 1999 - Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 2 (3):231-237.
    The European Biomedical Ethics Practitioner Education Project (EBEPE), funded by the BIOMED programme of the European Commission, is a five-nation partnership to produce open learning materials for healthcare ethics education. Papers and case studies from a series of twelve conferences throughout the European Union, reflecting the ‘burning issues’ in the participants' healthcare systems, have been collected by a team based at Imperial College, London, where they are now being edited into a series of seven activity-based workbooks for individual or group (...)
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  36. Teaching medical ethics and law within medical education: a model for the UK core curriculum.Richard Ashcroft & Donna Dickenson - 1998 - Journal of Medical Ethics 24:188-192.
  37. Is efficiency ethical? Resource issues in health care.Donna Dickenson - 1995 - In Brenda Almond (ed.), Introducing Applied Ethics. Cambridge, USA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 229-246.
    How can we allocate scarce health care resources justly? In particular, are markets the most efficient way to deliver health services? Much blood, sweat and ink has been shed over this issue, but rarely has either faction challenged the unspoken assumption behind the claim made by advocates of markets: that efficiency advances the interests of both individuals and society. Whether markets actually do increase efficiency is arguably a matter for economists, but the deeper ethical question is whether efficiency is the (...)
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  38. Philosophical assumptions and presumptions about trafficking for prostitution.Donna Dickenson - 2006 - In Christien van den Anker & Jeroen Doomernik (eds.), Trafficking and women's rights. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 43-54.
    This chapter critically examines two frequently found assumptions in the debate about trafficking for prostitution: 1. That the sale of sexual services is like the sale of any other good or service; 2. That by and large women involved in trafficking for prostitution freely consent to sell such services.
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  39. The new French resistance: commodification rejected?Donna Dickenson - 2005 - Medical Law International 7 (1):41-63.
    In this article I evaluate a resurrected French resistance movement--to biotechnological commodification. The official French view that ‘the body is the person’ has been dismissed as a ‘taboo’ by the French political scientist Dominique Memmi . Yet France has indeed resisted the models of globalised commodification adopted in US bioechnology, as, for example, when the government blocked a research collaboration between the American firm Millennium Pharmaceuticals and a leading genomics laboratory, le Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisme Humain, on the grounds the (...)
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  40. (1 other version)What should be the RCOG's relationship with older women?Donna Dickenson - 2009 - In Susan Bewley, William Ledger & Dimitrios Nikolaou (eds.), Reproductive Ageing. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. pp. 277-286.
    Reproductive ageing has effects on individual and public health, now and in generations to come. This volume of presentations from a conference at the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists brings together a diverse but timely set of contributions.. in ny chapter I specifically examine the responsibilities of the College to women outside normal reproductive age.
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  41. Ownership, property and women's bodies.Donna Dickenson - 2006 - In Heather Widdows, Aitsiber Emaldi Cirion & Itziar Alkorta Idiakez (eds.), Women's Reproductive Rights. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 188-198.
    Does advocating women's reproductive rights require us to believe that women own property in their bodies? In this chapter I conclude that it does not. Although the concept of owning our own bodies — ‘whose body is it anyway?’ — has polemical and political utility, it is incoherent in philosophy and law. Rather than conflate the entirely plausible concept of women’s reproductive rights and the implausible notion of property in the body, we should keep them separate, so that the weakness (...)
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  42. (1 other version)Community disintegration or moral panic? Young people and family care.Donna Dickenson - 1999 - In Dr Michael Parker & Michael Parker (eds.), Ethics and Community in the Health Care Professions. New York: Routledge. pp. 62-78.
    The spread of liberal individualism to the family is often portrayed as deeply inimical to the welfare of children and young people. In this view, the family is the bastion of the private and the antithesis of the contractual, rights-oriented model that underpins public life. This chapter examines that proposition critically.
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  43. Disappearing women, vanishing ladies and property in embryos.Donna Dickenson - 2017 - International Journal of Law and the Biosciences 4:1-6.
    Guidelines on embryo storage prioritise 'respect for the embryo' above the wishes of the women whose labour and tissue have gone into creating the embryo in the first place, effectively making women and the female body disappear. In this article I draw a parallel between this phenomenon relating to embryo storage and other instances of a similar phenomenon that I have called 'the lady vanishes', particularly in stem cell and 'mitochondrial transfer' research. I suggest that a modified property regime could (...)
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  44. Who owns embryonic and fetal tissue?Donna Dickenson - 2002 - In Ethical Issues in Maternal-Fetal Medicine. Cambridge University Press. pp. 233-244.
    Until very recently the question of who owns embryonic or fetal tissue was of limited importance to clinicians, but advances in stem cell research have made such tissue commercially valuable. This chapter examines the legal and ethical basis of claims to property in embryonic or fetal tissue, taking a critical stance.
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  45. Testing times for the consumer genetics revolution.Donna Dickenson - 2014 - The New Scientist 221 (2251):26-27.
    With the highest profile seller of $99 genetic tests under fire, will public trust in personalised medicine suffer?
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  46. Regulating (or not) reproductive medicine: an alternative to letting the market decide.Donna Dickenson - 2011 - Indian Journal of Medical Ethics 8 (3):175-179.
    Whilst India has been debating how to regulate 'surrogacy' the UK has undergone a major consultation on increasing the amount of 'expenses'paid to egg 'donors', while France has recently finished debating its entire package of bioethics regulation and the role of its Biomedicine Agency. Although it is often claimed that there is no alternative to the neo-liberal, market-based approach in regulating (or not) reproductive medicine--the ideology prevalent in both India and the UK--advocates of that position ignore the alternative model offered (...)
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  47. An uneasy case against Stephen Munzer: umbilical cord blood and property in the body.Donna Dickenson - 2009 - American Philosophical Association Newsletter 8 (2).
    Critical examination of the concept of property in the body, with particular relevance to Stephen Munzer's work on umbilical cord blood.
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  48. Ethical qualms about genetic prognosis.Donna Dickenson - 2016 - Canadian Medical Association Journal 188 (6):1-2.
    The debate about direct-to-consumer genetic testing has centred on whether consumers are the best judges of their own clinical care. Inthis article, I also examine whether the science of personalized medicine is really as advanced as its proponents claim, and how the availability of genetic markers affects decisions on who gets and does not get medical treatment.
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  49.  27
    Feminist perspectives on human genetics and reproductive technologies.Donna Dickenson - 2016 - eLS (Formerly Known as the Encyclopedia of Life Sciences).
    Feminism offers three separate but equally important insights about human genetics and the new reproductive technologies. First, feminism is concerned with ways in which these new technologies have the potential to exploit women, particularly in the treatment of their reproductive tissue, while seeming to offer both sexes greater reproductive freedom. This risk has been largely ignored by much bioethics, which has concentrated on choice and autonomy at the expense of justice, giving it little to say about the concept of exploitation. (...)
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  50. Prospero among the neo-conservatives: the temptations of political powerlessness.Donna Dickenson - 2007 - The Hedgehog Review 9 (1).
    How can intellectuals who oppose the illegitimate war in Iraq come to similar terms with the U.S. neoconservatives, and their unrepentant British collaborators, who have stranded us in it? In the Tempest, Shakespeare’s most political play, comedy though it is meant to be, intellectuals are warned not to consider themselves guiltless. But how can those who marched against the war, or who tried to speak truth to power in other ways, be guilty of its misuses? Surely this is too harsh (...)
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